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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

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WOMEN'S  EDUCATIONAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL 
UNION,  BOSTON 

DEPARTMENT   OF  RESEARCH 


Studies  in  Economic  Relations  of  Women 


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WOMEN'S   EDUCATIONAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   UNION 

BOSTON 

DEPARTMENT  OF  RESEARCH 


STUDIES   IN 
ECONOMIC  RELATIONS  OF  WOMEN 


VOLUME  vm 


CITY   OF    BOSTON   PRINTING    DEPARTMENT 


THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  AND 
WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE 


BY 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  RESEARCH 

WOMEN^S  EDUCATIONAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  UNION 

BOSTON,  MASSACHUSETTS 


Prepared  under  the  direction  of 

MAY  ALLINSON,  A.  M. 

Associate  Director 


Published  by 

WOMEN'S  EDUCATIONAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  UNION 

BOSTON,  MASS. 


HD 

6073 

(^3  6L5 


PREFACE 


The  report  of  the  Commission  on  National  Aid  to 
Vocational  Education,  published  June  1,  1914,  recom- 
mends that  more  definite  studies  be  made  to  supply 
information  which  may  be  used  in  the  training  of 
commercial  workers.  The  report  points  out  that  there 
is  a  surprising  lack  of  information  respecting  commercial 
conditions  affecting  commercial  education.  It  is,  per- 
haps, strange  that  an  enterprise  like  commercial  educa- 
tion which  has  been  so  largely  undertaken  in  our  pubHc 
schools  should  possess  so  meager  a  basis  of  concrete 
evidence  for  established  procedure.  Our  organized 
information  upon  commercial  education  has  been  limited 
to  statistics  regarding  number  of  pupils,  teachers, 
schools  and  appropriations.  The  report  above-men- 
tioned states  that  we  need  information  concerning  other 
and  more  important  matters,  such  as  supply  and  demand 
for  trained  commercial  workers,  distribution,  selection 
and  placement,  and  the  changing  conditions  of  com- 
merce and  their  consequent  effects  upon  commercial 
education. 

During  the  past  year  three  important  investigations 
have  been  undertaken  in  and  about  Boston  with  the 
purpose  of  securing  this  much  needed  fact  basis  for 
commercial  education,  and  this  report  presents  the 
results  of  one  of  these  studies.  The  other  two  investiga- 
tions were  conducted  respectively  by  the  Committee  on 
Education  of  the  Boston  Chamber  of  Commerce,  and 
by  a  Committee  of  Commercial  Teachers  representing 
the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Education.  No 
reports  have  yet  been  published  as  the  result  of  these 
latter  investigations.     The  investigation  carried  on  by 

G9()G39 


VUl  PREFACE. 

the  Chamber  of  Commerce  was  intended  to  study 
primarily  commercial  conditions  affecting  the  com- 
mercial education  of  boys;  the  investigation  by  the 
Massachusetts  State  Committee  consisted  chiefly  of 
an  examination  into  the  business  careers  of  boys  and 
girls  who  had  been  out  of  school  for  some  years;  the 
investigation  conducted  by  the  Department  of  Research 
of  the  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union  and 
embodied  in  the  present  report,  dealt  with  conditions 
applying  to  the  commercial  training  of  girls. 

Of  the  three  investigations  it  is  fair  to  state  that 
this  report  presents  the  most  far-reaching  and  thorough- 
going results.  It  was  prepared  by  the  Department  of 
Research  of  the  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial 
Union,  from  data  secured  by  four  college  graduates  hold- 
ing fellowships  in  research.  Miss  Lucy  C.  Phinney,  Miss 
Jean  M.  Cunningham,  Miss  Margaret  M.  Lothrop  and 
Miss  Hazel  Manning,  working  under  the  direction  of 
Miss  May  Allinson,  Associate  Director  of  the  depart- 
ment. The  resources  and  experience  of  the  makers  of 
this  report  have  enabled  them  to  gather  matter  of 
value  from  a  wide  field  in  which  conditions  prevailing 
in  the  business  house,  in  the  school,  and  in  the  home  are 
presented.  There  is  a  tone  of  moderation  throughout 
the  report  and  there  is  evident  no  spirit  of  unnecessary 
challenge  or  indictment  of  the  methods  and  purposes 
of  commercial  courses.  Commendation  is  freely  given 
to  successful  effort  on  the  part  of  the  schools,  and 
criticism  with  a  full  appreciation  of  hampering  condi- 
tions is  stated  with  the  evident  purpose  of  helpfulness 
and  encouragement.  The  attitude  of  the  report  will 
be  found  dispassionate,  and  commercial  teachers  reading 
it  will  feel  impelled  to  renew  their  efforts  with  cheer- 
fulness rather  than  with  discouragement. 

Practical  results  of  this  investigation  have  not  awaited 
its  formal  publication.  The  new  Clerical  School  of 
Boston,  begun  in  September,  1914,  shows  in  its  organi- 
zation, course  of  study  and  general  procedure  the  sub- 


PREFACE.  ix 

stantial  principles  advocated  in  the  report.  Supple- 
mentary commercial  courses  recently  incorporated  in 
our  general  high  schools,  such  as  salesmanship,  part 
time  plans,  practice  work  in  offices  and  stores,  vocational 
guidance  and  placement,  are  instances  of  the  recognition 
on  the  part  of  the  schools  of  many  of  the  principles 
which  the  report  advocates. 

F.   V.   THOMPSON, 

Assistant  Superintendent  of  Schools. 
Boston,  Mass.,  November,  1914. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


Page 

PREFACE vii-ix 

LIST   OF   TABLES xiii-xiv 

LIST  OF  CHARTS xv 

CHAPTER  I  —  INTRODUCTORY 
By  May  Allinbon 
Importance  of  women  in  the  commercial  world.  Two  main 
lines  of  work.  "Clerical  occupations"  and  "trade."  Rela- 
tive numerical  importance  of  each  group.  Office  service  and 
its  wide  range  of  workers.  Development  of  stenography. 
Evolution  of  the  typewriter.  Rapid  increase  in  numbers  of 
women  in  the  commercial  world.  Evolution  of  "commercial 
education"  in  the  United  States.  In  Boston.  Predominance 
of  pupils  studying  commercial  subjects  in  Boston  high  schools. 
Problems  confronting  the  vocational  educator.  Purpose  of 
study.  Methods.  Study  of  day  high  schools  and  their  pupils. 
Evening  high  schools  and  their  pupils.  Placement  agencies. 
Local  canvass  of  women  employed  in  offices.  Visits  to  employers. 
Purpose.     Suggestions  to  educators 1-24 

CHAPTER  II.— THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  AND  ITS  PROBLEMS 
By  Lucy  C.  Phinney 

General  high  schools.  Types  of  school  neighborhoods.  Nature  of 
commercial  courses.  Comparison  of  academic  and  commer- 
cial pupils.  Information  secured  from  graduates.  Nature  of 
group  studied  intensively,  as  to  schooling,  occupation  and 
wage.  Eflfect  of  additional  training  on  wage.  Evening  com- 
mercial high  schools.  Nature  of  courses.  Personnel  of  group 
studied.  Variation  of  age,  education,  occupation  and  length 
of  experience.  Proportion  in  office  service.  Occupation,  school- 
ing and  wage.  Plans  for  improving  the  course.  General  prob- 
lems of  commercial  educators.  Vocational  guidance.  Neces- 
sity for  familiarity  with  pupils'  needs  and  employers'  require- 
ments. Acquaintance  with  development  in  office  machinery. 
Importance  of  a  broad  general  education.  Effects  of  the 
elective  system.  Busine-ss  demands  for  i)ersonality.  Means 
of  meeting  general  business  requirements.  Part-time  school- 
ing.   Suggestions  from  employers.    Placement  of  graduates     .       25-73 

CHAPTER  III.—  CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE  SERVICE 
By  Jean  M.  Cunningham 

Number  in  the  occujiation.  Pro{)ortion  of  men  and  women. 
Classification   of  workers,  clerks,   bookkeepers,  stenographers 

(xi) 


Xii  CONTENTS. 


Paqe 


and  secretaries.  Factors  determining  opportunities.  Different 
kinds  of  business.  Personal  attitude  and  business  policy  of  the 
employer.  Mental  equipment  and  personality  of  girl.  Intro- 
duction of  office  machinery.  Means  of  securing  work.  Stabil- 
ity of  the  workers.  Reasons  for  leaving  positions.  Temporary 
work.  Conditions  of  work.  Hours.  Overtime.  Holidays. 
Vacations.  Slight  difference  between  nominal  and  actual 
wage.    Opportunities  for  women  in  office  service       .       .  74-112 

CHAPTER  IV.—  WAGES 
By  Margaret  M.  Lothrop 
High  wage  scale  of  office  service.  Four  factors  determining  wage. 
Occupation.  Age.  Education.  Experience.  Relation  of 
education  to  length  of  experience.  Relation  of  education  and 
beginning  wage.  Necessity  of  thorough  preparation  for  office 
service 113-149 

CHAPTER  v.—  HOME  LIFE  AND  RESPONSIBILITIES 
Bt  Hazel  Manning 
Neighborhoods  of  five  schools  studied.  General  characteristics 
of  each.  Historical  change.  Nationality.  Home  conditions. 
Type  of  family.  Character  of  mother.  Proportion  of  workers  at 
home  and  adrift.  Marital  condition.  Age  at  beginning  work. 
Contributions  to  the  home  as  indicated  by  father's  national- 
ity.   Father's  occupation.    Dependents  and  wage-earners       .    150-171 

CHAPTER  VI.— SUMMARY  AND  OUTLOOK 
By  May  Allinson 
Summary  and  outlook 172-179 

INDEX 181-187 


LIST  OF  TABLES.  XIU 


LIST  OF  TABLES 


Table  Page 

1.  Showing  increase  in  the  number  of  women  employed  in  busi- 

ness in  the  United  States  from  1870  to  1910     ....         1 

2.  Showing  growi,h  of  private  business  and  commercial  schools  and 

colleges  in  the  United  States  from  1870  to  1910       ...         5 

3.  Showing  relative  pro{X)rtion  of  students  in  private  commercial 

colleges  and  in  public  high  schools 9 

4.  Showing  proportion  of  girls  in  the  Boston  high  schools,  taking 

one  or  more  commercial  subjects,  1912  to  1913        ...        13 

5.  Showing  the  comparative  annual  loss  of  the  commercial  and 

academic  students  in  a  Boston  high  school        ....       31 

6.  Showing  the  relation   between  father's  occupation  and  high 

school  course  elected 33 

7.  Showing  summary  of  information  secured  concerning  935  high 

school  pupils  of  14  graduating  classes  from  1905  to  1913  .        .       34 

8.  Showing  relation  of  the  amount  of  schooling  to  the  character  of 

work  in  office  service 36 

9.  Showing  proportion  of  310  former  high  school  pupils  earning 

less  than  $9  and  $9  and  over 37 

10.  Showing  proportion  of  310  public  school  pupils  who  have  gone 

to  business  college  for  further  training 38 

1 1 .  Showing  relation  of  amount  of  schooling  and  length  of  experience 

to  present  wage 44 

12.  Showing  age  of  girls   enrolled   in   evening   commercial    high 

schools  in  1913  to  1914 47 

13.  Showing  previous  day  school  training  of  861  girls  in  evening 

high  schools 48 

14.  Showing  occupation  of  861  girls  in  Boston  evening  commercial 

high  schools 50 

15.  Showing  length  of  working  day  of  682  girls  in  three  selected 

occupations  attending  evening  high  school        .        .        .  51 

16.  Showing  the  occupations  of  girls  in  office  service  in  five  Boston 

evening  high  schools 52 

17.  Showing  previous  high  school  and  additional  training  of  237 

evening  high  school  girls  in  office  service 53 

18.  Showing    previous    education,    with    and    without    additional 

training,  of  682  girls  in  evening  high  schools     ....       54 

19.  Showing  the  number  of  stenographers  and  typists  placed  by  four 

typewriter  agencies  in  Boston  during  the  year,  January,  1912 

to  1913 80 

20.  Showing  means  of  securing  work  in  office  service  ....       96 

21.  Showing  rea.sons  for  leaving  positions 104 

22.  Showing  weekly  hours  of  work  in  office  service     ....     106 


Xiv  LIST   OF   TABLES. 

Table  Page 

23.  Showing  wages  of  women  oflBce  workers  in  Civil  Service  by 

occupation 116 

24.  Showing  wages  of  office  workers  registered  in  an  employment 

bureau  in  1913 118 

25.  Showing  wages  of  1,177  women  in  office  service  by  occupation     .  120 

26.  Showing  wage  by  age  of  985  women  in  office  service  .        .        .  122 

27.  Showing  schooling  of  675  clerks  and  439  stenographers      .        .  123 

28.  Showing  schooling  of  G75  clerks  with  relation  to  wage        .        .  128 

29.  Showing  wages  of  439  stenographers  and  typists  as  influenced  by 

schooling 130 

30.  Showing  wages  of  675  clerks  and  439  stenographers  by  length  of 

experience 135 

3 1 .  Showing  wage  by  schooling  of  1 87  stenographers  secured  through 

the  schools 141 

32.  Comparing  the  present  wage  of  806  office  workers  with  a  working 

experience  of  six  years  or  less  with  310  secured  from  the 
schools 143 

33.  Comparing  beginning  wage  of  593  women  secured  from  offices 

and  305  women  secured  from  the  schools 144 

34.  Showing  relation  between  the  beginning  wage  and  schooling  of 

187  stenographers  studied  from  the  schools       ....      145 

35.  Showing  nativity  of  the  population  of  five  school  neighborhoods     153 

36.  Showing  wage  by  age  by  living  condition  of  659  girls  secured 

from  the  schools 158 

37.  Showing  living  conditions  of  women  in  office  service  in  the 

United  States 159 

38.  Showing  living  conditions  of  310  girls  in  office  service         .        .  160 

39.  Showing  age  at  beginning  work  by  occupation  of  father     .        .  161 

40.  Showing  occupation  of  fathers  of  girls  from  day  and  evening 

high  school  records 163 

41.  Showing  relation  of  the  father's  nationality  to  the  age  of  the 

girl  at  beginning  work 165 

42.  Showing  marital  condition  of  women  in  office  service  in  Boston     166 

43.  Showing   amount   of   contribution   to    the   family   income   by 

nationality  of  the  father 167 

44.  Showing  contribution  to  the  family  income  by  father's  occupa- 

tion   168 


LIST  OF  CHARTS.  XV 


LIST  OF  CHAETS 


Chart  Page 

I.     Showing   comparative   numbers   of   women   by   occupation 

employed  in  Clerical  Occupations  and  ia  Trade  ...         3 
II.     Showing  beginning  wage  by  schooling  of  310  cases  secured 

from  the  schools 39 

III.  Showing  present  wage  by  schooling  and  length  of  experience 

of  310  cases  secured  from  the  schools 45 

IV.  Showing   numbers   of   temporary   and   permanent   workers 

placed  by  months  in  four  typewriter  agencies  during  the 

year  1913 103 

V.    Showing  wages  of  9,488  stenographers  and  typists  placed  by 

five  typewriter  agencies  during  the  year  1913       .        .       .     117 
VI.     Showing  occupation  by  wage  of  office  workers  from  various 

sources  —  Civil  Service,  Employment  Agencies  and  Offices     119 
VII.     Showing  schooling  by  present  wage  of  675  clerks  and  439 

stenographers 127 

VIII.     Showing  wages  of  clerks  and   stenographers  by  length  of 

experience 133 

IX.     Showing  relation  of  schooling  and  experience  to  wage     .        .     137 


CHAPTER   I.— INTRODUCTORY 


May  Allinson 


Women  have  appeared  as  a  large  and  important  factor 
in  the  commercial  world  during  the  last  half-century. 
The  20,000  women  thus  employed  in  1870  constituted 
but  one  per  cent  (1.1  per  cent)  of  the  total  number 
working  for  wages,  while  the  1,167,908  engaged  in 
trade,  transportation  and  clerical  occupations  in  1910 
constituted  14.5  per  cent  of  all  the  women  gainfully 
employed  in  the  United  States. 


Table  I. —  Showing  Increase  in  the  Number  of  Women  Employed 
in  Business  in  the  United  States  from  1870  to  1910. 


Women  Employed  in  Specified  Groups. 

YXABB. 

Total 

Number 

Gainfully 

Employed. 

Percentage 

of 
Increase. 

Number  in 
Trade  and 
Transpor- 
tation.' 

Percentage 

of 
Increase. 

Number 
in  Office 
Service. 

Percentage 

of 
Increase. 

1870 

1.836,288 
2.647,157 
3.914,571 
5,319,397 
8.075,772 

20.383 

63,058 

228.421 

503,347 

1.167.908  2 

8,023 

30,344 

113,261 

245.517 

573.135 

1880 

44.2 
47.9 
35.9 
51.8 

209.3 
262.2 
120.4 
132.0 

278.2 
272.0 
116.8 
133.4 

1890 

1900 

1910 

>  United  States  Census.  1900.  Occupations,  pages  1  and  li.  Also  United  States  Census. 
1910.  Vol.  IV,  Population,  Occupation  Statistics,  pages  92-94  inclusive. 

2  Combining  Women  in  Transportation,  106,596;  Trade,  468,088;  Clerical  Occupations, 
593,224;  Total,  1,167,908. 

This  army  of  women  numbering  more  than  a  million 
is  engaged  in  two  main  lines  of  work  —  ''clerical 
occupations,"  employing  593,224,  and  "trade,"  employ- 
ing 468,088  women.  Office  service  occupies  the  majority 
of  women  enumerated  by  the  United  States  Census 
under  "clerical  occupations"  and  salesmanship  employs 
most  of  those  reported  under  "trade." 


2  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

Office  service,  including  bookkeepers,  cashiers  and 
accountants,  clerks  (in  offices)  and  stenographers  and 
typewriters,  is  the  most  important  occupation,  numeri- 
cally, emploj'ing  573,135,  almost  one-half  (49.1  per  cent) 
of  the  total  number  of  women  in  the  commercial  world 
in  1910.^  Salesmanship,  both  wholesale  and  retail, 
employed  450,279  women  reported  as  bankers,  brokers 
and  money  lenders,  clerks  in  stores,  commercial  travel- 
ers, floorwalkers  and  forewomen  in  stores,  insurance 
agents  and  officials,  real  estate  agents  and  officials, 
retail  dealers  and  saleswomen,  constituting  more  than 
one-third  (38.6  per  cent)  of  the  total  number  in  com- 
mercial occupations.^ 

As  office  workers  are  tucked  away  in  remote  offices 
in  tall  business  buildings  or  in  clerical  departments 
never  penetrated  or  seen  by  the  public  and  because 
they  are  scattered  throughout  the  city  in  every  kind  of 
business,  educational,  professional  and  manufacturing 
establishment,  it  is  difficult  to  appreciate  the  size  and 
importance  of  this  large  group  of  women  workers. 
It  is,  therefore,  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  Census 
does  not  provide  official  statistics  concerning  these 
workers  secured  from  the  places  of  business  as  is  done  in 
Manufactures.  The  only  official  information  now  avail- 
able is  based  on  personal  statistics  gained  by  the  house 
to  house  canvass  of  the  Census  enumerators  every  ten 
years,  and  published  in  the  volume  on  Occupations. 

The  women  who  work  in  offices  represent  a  wide 
variation  of  education,  ability  and  earning  capacity. 
At  one  extreme  is  the  secretary  with  a  college  education 
who  may  have  supervision  over  a  large  office  and  many 
subordinates;  who  can  carry  on  the  business  and  decide 
many  perplexing  questions  in  the  absence  of  her  employer 
and  receive  a  yearly  salary  of  $1,000  and  $2,000.  At 
the  other   extreme  is  the  girl  or  woman  with  only  a 

>  Several  writers  have  recently  confused  the  relative  numerical  importance  of  the  several 
occupation  groups.  See  Milea,  H.  E.  What  I  am  Trying  to  do,  Outlook,  October,  1913, 
page  607.  Neystrom,  Paul  H.  Training  Retail  Merchants  in  the  University  of  Minne- 
sota,  Survey,  December  20,  1913,  page  325.  Puffer,  J.  Adams.  Vocational  Guidance, 
pages  215  and  232. 

»  See  Chart  I,  page  3. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


Chart  I. —  Showing  Comparative  Numbers  of  Women  by  Occupations 
Employed  in  Clerical  Occupations  and  in  Trade. ^ 


Miscellaneout 


Clerks. 
122,66$. 


Buokkcepers, 

Cashiers,  and 

Accountants. 

187.155 


Stcnograplicr; 
and  Typists 
26i.JIS 


Commercial  Travelers  and 
Floorwalkers,  S,«J9. 

Women  In  Banks.  Real  Estalo 

Offices,  and  Insurance 

Agents.  8,22i. 

Miscellaneous. 


Retail  Denlers, 
67.IOi 


Clerks  in  Stores, 
111.594. 


Saleswomen, 
257.720 


Clerical  Occupations,  593,224. 
(Office  Service,  573,135.) 


Trade,  468,088. 
(Salesmanship,  450,379.) 


>  United  States  Census,  1910,  Vol.  IV,  Population,  Occupation  Slaiistics,  pp.  92-94. 
Since  the  Census  confesses  that  "  many  of  the  '  clerks '  in  stores  are  e\'idently  '  salesmen 
and  saleswomen,' "  the  whole  number  has  been  included  in  the  salesmanship  group. 


4  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

grammar  school  education  who  folds  circulars  or  addresses 
envelopes  in  a  small  dingy  office  at  one  dollar  or  less  a 
day  and  for  only  a  few  days  at  a  time.  In  general, 
all  may  be  classified  in  four  groups,  secretaries,  stenog- 
raphers and  typists,  bookkeepers  and  accountants  and 
clerks.  In  the  absence  of  any  general  name  for  all  these 
workers,  the  term  women  in  office  service  will  be  used 
throughout  this  report  to  include  all  who  work  in 
offices;  namely,  those  whose  work  involves  responsibility 
and  judgment,  like  the  secretary,  or  technical  skill,  like 
the  stenographer,  or  perhaps  largely  manual  work,  such 
as  that  of  the  clerk  or  office  girl. 

In  1870,  the  Census  first  reported  8,023  women  in 
office  service,  seven  of  whom  were  designated  as  "short- 
hand writers."  ^  One  of  these  seven  "female  shorthand 
writers"  was  in  Massachusetts.  Let  us  accept  without 
further  question  the  history  of  the  development  of 
shorthand  which  has  been  formulated  by  the  advocates 
of  particular  systems.  We  are  informed  that  it  was 
introduced  into  the  United  States  during  1830  to  1840 
by  several  exponents  of  as  many  different  systems  who 
lectured,  formed  classes,  and  developed  text  books. '^ 
By  1852,  the  Pitmans  claim  to  have  "had  a  system 
which  answered  all  the  requirements  of  the  commercial 
amanuensis,  the  court  reporter,  and  the  newspaper 
writer  of  the  time." 

The  complement  of  stenography,  the  typewriter,  did 
not  supplement  shorthand  until  some  twenty  years 
later,  though  several  inventors  had  been  working  on 
such  a  machine  for  half  a  century.^  The  Remington 
Company,  the  oldest  manufacturing  firm  now  in  exist- 
ence, says  its  first  machines  were  ready  for  the  market 
in  1874,  but  "the  public  was  skeptical  about  the  value 
of  the  new  machine  for  practical  purposes,  and  found 
one  great  objection  to  its  use  in  the  fact  that  it  wrote 

'  United  States  Census,  Population  and  Social  Statistics,  page  688. 

'  Barker,  E.  Shorthand  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  New  vs.  the  Old,  by  an 
Official  Instructor  in  Phonography  in  the  New  York  High  Schools. 

•Overleigh,  Herbert.  The  Evolution  of  the  Typetvriter.  Pamphlet  published  by  the 
Remington  Typewriter  Company. 


INTRODUCTORY.  5 

capitals  only."  After  the  fundamental  principle  was 
finally  evolved,  however,  many  minor  details  were 
developed  and  improved  during  the  next  decade. 

The  revival  of  business  after  the  Civil  War,  the  result- 
ant necessity  for  improved  business  administration, 
the  development  of  the  typewriter  and  of  commercial 
schools  to  train  workers  for  this  new  demand  are  most 


Table  2. —  Showing  Growth  of  Private  Business  and  Commercial 
Schools  and  Colleges  in  the  United  States  from  1870  to  1910. 


Number 

Schools 

Reporting. 

Number 
Instructors. 

Students  Repobted. 

Dates. 

Total. 

men. 

women. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

1870 

14" 
162  2 
263 » 
373  « 
541' 

64 

618 

1,593 

2,112 

2.936 

3,055 

27,146 « 
78,920' 
91,549 
134,778 

3 

21,977 
49,901 
58,396 
72,887 



83.6 
73.8 
63.8 
54.1 

8 

22,822 
17,764 
33,153 
61,891 

1880 

1890 

11.4 
26.2 

1900 

36.2 

1910 

45.9 

'  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1870,  page 
529. 

'Ibid,  1880,  page  480. 
» Ibid,  1889-1890,  page  1610. 
« Ibid,  1899-1900,  page  2475. 
'  Ibid,  1909-1910,  page  1249. 

•  Fourteen  schools  not  reporting  by  sex,  2,347  students. 
'  11,255  not  reported  by  sex. 

*  Not  reported  by  sex. 

apparent  in  the  278.2  per  cent  increase  between  1870 
and  1880  in  the  number  of  women  employed  in  office 
service.  While  22,822  women  students  were  reported 
that  year  in  the  148  business  colleges  in  the  United 
States  giving  statistics  by  sex,  they  formed  but  11.4 
per  cent  of  the  men  and  women  students  reported.^ 
In  1890  the  proportion  of  women  students  had  increased 
to  more  than  one-fourth  (26.2  per  cent)  and  in  1900 
to  more  than  one-third  (36.2  per  cent)  of  those  reported 
by  sex.     By  1910  the  women  constituted  almost  one-half 

'  In  Boston,  100  women,  13.4  per  cent  of  the  students  reported  by  the  three  commercial 
schools,  were  preparing  for  work  in  business  houses. 


6  WOMEN   IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

(45.9  per  cent)  the  total  number  reported.  This  rapid 
increase  in  the  number  of  women  in  business  schools 
seems  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  there  has  been  a  cor- 
responding increase  in  the  demand  for  women  with 
such  equipment  as  is  provided  by  these  so-called  com- 
mercial schools  and  colleges,  namely,  primarily  prepara- 
tion for  office  service.  ''Shorthand  writing"  in  1870 
was  largely  monopolized  by  men,  the  women  forming 
but  4.5  per  cent  of  the  154  persons  in  this  kind  of  work. 
By  1890,  when  women  "stenographers  and  typewriters" 
were  next  enumerated,  they  had  increased  to  63.7  per 
cent,  in  1900  to  76.6  per  cent  of  the  total  number 
engaged  in  this  occupation,^  and  by  1910  the  women 
constituted  more  than  four-fifths  (83.1  per  cent)  of  the 
316,693  stenographers  and  typewriters  employed  in  the 
United  States.  The  continuous  increase  in  the  propor- 
tion of  women  engaged  in  stenography  and  typewriting 
presents  an  important  suggestion  to  leaders  of  com- 
mercial education, — that  stenography  and  typewriting 
as  an  occupation  is  distinctly  and  increasingly  woman's 
field.  Business  training  for  men  must  be  worked 
out  along  other  lines,  such  as  bookkeeping,  for  admin- 
istrative and  managerial  office  positions,  and  for 
salesmanship. 

Since  the  opportunities  in  office  service  have  grown 
by  leaps  and  bounds  during  the  last  half  century,  the 
training  of  workers  to  meet  these  demands  has  provided 
an  interesting  chapter  in  the  history  of  vocational 
education.  Naturally  the  innovation  in  the  educational 
world  of  training  for  business  originated  and  was  shoul- 
dered by  private  individuals  who  appreciated  the  oppor- 
tunities and  the  importance  of  the  new  demands. 
Pioneer  commercial  educators  and  schools  were  more  or 
less  evanescent,  but  at  least  twelve  private  business 
colleges  were  established  in  various  cities  in  the  United 
States  before  1850,  and  more  than  thirty  before  1860, 
all  of  which  survived  the  Civil  War  and  reconstruction 

>  United  States  CenBua,  Occupations,  1900,  page  1. 


INTRODUCTORY.  7 

period.^  Between  1860  and  1870,  more  than  fifty  new 
business  colleges  sprang  up  to  meet  the  increasing 
demands  of  reviving  business  after  the  war,  but  only 
fourteen  responded  to  the  United  States  Commissioner 
of  Education  in  1870,  reporting  3,055  students. ^ 

Four  of  those  established  before  the  Civil  War  were 
located  in  Boston,  Sawyer's  Commercial  College  being 
organized  in  1838,  Comer's  Commercial  College  in  1840, 
French's  Business  College  and  Stenographic  Institute 
in  1848,  and  Bryant  and  Stratton's  Commercial  School 
in  1860,3  the  second  and  fourth  being  still  in  existence. 
In  1880,  three  of  these.  Sawyer's,  French's,  and  Bryant 
and  Stratton's,  reported  795  students,  of  which  689 
were  men  and  106  women.  "Common  English  and 
Correspondence,"  Penmanship,  Bookkeeping,  Banking, 
and  Commercial  Law  were  taught  in  all.  French's  and 
Sawyer's  offered  in  addition  Higher  Mathematics,  Sur- 
veying, Political  Economy  and  Phonography.'' 

The  commercial  schools  developed  greatly  both  in 
quality  and  quantity  during  the  twenty  years  from 
1870  to  1890,  when  they  largely  controlled  the  training 
of  men  and  women  wishing  to  go  to  work  in  business  or 
commercial  lines.  With  the  appearance  of  such  com- 
petitors as  the  Wharton  School  of  Finance  and  Com- 
merce in  Philadelphia  in  1880,  the  commercial  colleges 
had  to  improve  and  expand  their  curriculum  and  in 
1888   the   United    States   Commissioner   of   Education 

1  One  hundred  and  sixty-two  Business  Schools  and  Colleges  reported  to  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Kduciition  in  1880.  (See  Report  for  1880,  page  480.)  Of  135  reporting 
their  date  of  organization,  13  were  establi.''hed  before  18.50;  19  between  1850-1860;  57 
between  1860-1870;  and  47  between  1870-1880. 

The  following  cities  seem  to  have  established  schools  before  1850: 

1829,  St.  Louis  (Commercial  Department  of  St.  Louis  University);  1831,  Cincinnati 
(Commercial  Department  of  College  of  St.  Francis  Xavier);  1838,  Boston;  1840,  Boston 
(cited  in  Report  of  1885);  1841,  St.  Louis;  1812,  >Lirion,  Alabama  (Commercial  Depart- 
ment, University  of  Notre  Dame);  1842,  Notre  Dame,  Indiana;  1844,  Philadelphia;  1846, 
Providence;  18-17,  New  York  (College  of  St.  Francis  Xavier);  1848,  Boston;  1849,  New 
York;  1849,  Brooklyn. 

2  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1870, 
page  529. 

•  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1880, 
page  480. 

*  Ibid,  page  48C.  French's  College  offered  Life  Insurance  and  Sawyer's  College  offered 
Drawing  in  addition. 


8  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

wrote,  "There  is  a  marked  tendency  among  the  better 
class  of  these  institutions  to  improve  the  courses  of 
instruction,  making  them  more  thorough  and  practical. 
...  To  supply  the  increasing  demand  for  stenog- 
raphers, schools  of  short-hand  and  type-writing  have  been 
established  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  and,  with 
a  few  exceptions,  all  business  colleges  now  have  a 
'department  of  short-hand.'"  ^ 

Up  to  1894  three-fourths  of  the  students  seeking  a  busi- 
ness education  were  trained  in  the  private  commercial 
schools,  but  from  that  time  new  formidable  competitors 
began  to  appear  in  the  increasing  number  of  universities 
and  colleges  which  offered  instruction  in  business  admin- 
istration and  in  the  normal  schools,  private  and  public 
high  schools  which  offered  clerical  training  with  some 
general  allied  subjects. 

About  1893  Professor  Edmund  J.  James-  had  begun 
to  secure  general  public  interest  in  his  plea  for  "commer- 
cial high  schools  running  parallel  with  our  present  literary 
high  schools  on  the  one  hand  and  manual-training  high 
schools  on  the  other,"  ^  which  is  obvious  in  the  increase 
in  the  proportion  of  commercial  students  reported. 
In  1894  the  students  studying  commercial  subjects 
in  public  high  schools  constituted  but  one-tenth  (10.1 
per  cent)  the  total  number  and  in  1895  almost  one-fifth 
(18.2  per  cent).  The  proportion  of  commercial  students 
trained  in  public  high  schools  continued  to  increase 
parallel  with  a  decrease  in  the  private  commercial 
schools  during  the  next  five  years,  and  in  1910  the  high 
schools  reported  more  than  one-third  (34.8  per  cent) 
and  the  private  commercial  schools  more  than  one-half 
(57.7  per  cent)  the  students  of  commercial  subjects. 
In  1898  the  Commissioner  of  Education  wrote,  "The 
business  course  in  the  greater  number  of  these  (public 

>  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Educatiori,  1887- 
1888,  page  027. 

'  Now  President  of  the  University  of  Illinois. 

•United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Edxication,  1S95- 
1896,  page  722. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


high)  schools  does  not  differ  widely  from  the  business 
course  in  the  private  secondary  schools."  ^ 

In  Boston,  in  1897  to  1898,  the  ''so-called  commercial 
courses  were  introduced  into  the  day  high  schools  and 
offered  to  all  boys  and  girls  who  desired  to  take  them. 
Special  instructors  in  bookkeeping,  phonography,  and 
typewriting  were  employed."  ^     The  commercial  course 

Table  3. —  Showing   Relative   Proportion   of   Students   in    Private 
Commercial  Colleges  and  in  Public  High  Schools. ^ 


Number  of  Students  Enrolled  in 
Schools. 

Specified 

School  Year. 

public  high 
schools. 

COMMERCIAL    AND 
BUSINESS 
SCHOOLS. 

AU  Other 
Schools.^ 

Grand 
Total. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

1893-1894 

15,220 
25,539 
30,330 
33,075 
31,633 
38,134 
68,890 
81,249 

10.1 
18.2 
23.0 
24.7 
25.5 
28.9 
36.1 
34.8 

115,748 
96,135 
80,662 
77,746 
70,950 
70,186 
91,549 

134,778 

76.9 
68.5 
61.1 
58.1 
57.3 
53.3 
48.0 
57.7 

19,537 
18.689 
20,942 
22,927 
21,330 
23,198 
30,259 
17,613 

150,505 

1894-1895 

1895-1896 

140,363 
131,934 

1896-1897 

133,748 

1897-1898 

123,913 

1898-1899 

131,518 

1899-1900 

190.698 

1909-1910 

233,640 

1  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1899-1900. 
page  2470. 

2  Universities,  colleges,  normal  schools,  private  high  schools,  and  academies. 

of  study,  as  adopted  September  24,  1897,  was  to  extend 
through  two  years  and  provided  an  almost  appalling 
range  of  subjects: 

"First  Year. — Enghsh  language  and  literature,  ancient 
history,  phonography,  penmanship  and  commercial 
forms,  commercial  arithmetic  and  bookkeeping,  botany, 
drawing,  music,  physical  training. 

'  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1897-1898, 
page  2447. 

'United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1897-1898, 
page  2461.  "For  many  years,"  wrote  the  superintendent,  "bookkeeping  has  been 
taught  ...  in  the  Enghsh  High  School  for  boys  and  to  a  less  extent  in  the  Girla'  High 
School.  Certain  commercial  branches  have  been  taught  in  the  evening  high  school  for 
upward  of  twenty  years." 


10  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 

'^Second  Year. — English  language  and  literature,  medi- 
aeval history,  modern  history,  phonography  and  type- 
writing, elements  of  mercantile  law,  bookkeeping, 
commercial  geography,  zoology,  physiology  and  hygiene, 
drawing,  music,  and  physical  training."  ^ 

Two  high  schools,  the  Girls'  High  and  the  Roxbury 
High,  reported  117  students  (of  whom  sevent-een  were 
boys)  taking  the  course  out  of  a  total  of  1,635.-  In 
October,  1899,  stenography  and  typewriting  were  reported 
in  seven  Boston  high  schools. 

The  Boards  of  Education  in  other  cities  in  Massachu- 
setts which  had  been  trying  for  some  years  to  solve  the 
problem  of  training  for  office  service  had,  however, 
already  instituted  a  longer  course  of  training  ranging 
from  three  to  four  years.  ''As  to  the  length  of  these 
courses,"  wrote  one  of  the  agents  of  the  Massachusetts 
Board  of  Education,  "the  schools  (throughout  the  state) 
are  about  equally  divided  between  three  and  four  years." 
He  believed  that  the  "three  years'  course  of  this  kind 
is  desirable.  Much  is  to  be  learned  from  actual  business 
experience,  and  for  this  reason  I  believe  that  for  many 
the  fourth  year  would  be  more  profitably  spent  in  the 
office  or  in  commercial  employment  than  in  the 
schools."^ 

The  three  and  four  year  courses  later  instituted  in  the 
Boston  High  Schools  existed  side  by  side  until  1907  to  1908, 
when  the  commercial  courses  were  placed  on  a  four  year 
basis  in  all  the  high  schools.  In  the  graduating  classes  of 
1908  were  found  the  last  survivors  of  a  three  year  course. 
The  majority  of  the  students  had  left  school  when  they 
"graduated"  as  a  matter  of  course,  regardless  of  the 
length  of  time  required.  Thus,  in  a  graduating  class 
of  226  commercial  students  in  the  Dorchester  High 
School,  a  little  more  than  one-fourth  (27  per  cent)  were 
graduates  of  a  four  year  course.     In  a  graduating  class 

1  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1897-1898, 
page  2448. 

^Ibid,  page  240 1.  Public  high  schools  having  50  or  more  students  in  comtnerciul 
subjects  only  reported. 

•  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  Report  of,  1898-1899,  page  40. 


INTRODUCTORY.  11 

of  fifty-seven  in  East  Boston,  slightly  more  than  one-fifth 
(21.1  per  cent)  were  graduates  of  a  four  year  course. 

In  1911  an  attempt  was  made  to  return  to  a  two  year 
course  of  study  and  an  "intensified  clerical  course"  was 
introduced  into  the  Roxbury  High  School  "to  afford 
special  vocational  training  to  those  pupils  who  desire  to 
become  stenographers  and  bookkeepers  and  to  give  them 
as  good  training  and  preparation  as  they  could  obtain 
in  the  best  business  colleges.  It  can  be  completed 
in  two  years  or  less  by  able  and  faithful  pupils  .  .  ."  ^ 
A  large  number  of  girls  of  widely  varying  background 
flocked  into  the  new  "short  course"  but  a  very  small 
number  seemed  to  have  survived.  The  names  of  twenty- 
five  girls  constituted  the  roster  of  the  product  of  the 
course  in  1913.  Twelve  came  directly  from  grammar 
school,  six  had  had  one  year  and  four  had  had  two  years 
in  the  high  school  previous  to  taking  up  the  short 
course  of  two  years'  intensive  work.  Three  had  taken 
but  one  year  of  the  intensive  course  at  school  and  gone 
to  work.  The  experience  of  these  few  pupils  seemed  to 
indicate  the  fallacy  of  adequately  equipping  a  prospective 
stenographer  by  means  of  a  two  years'  intensified  high 
school  course  superimposed  on  merely  a  grammar  school 
foundation.  Two  of  the  twelve  with  this  preparation 
were  holding  positions  of  stenographers  at  $8  a  week. 
Two  went  to  private  business  college  after  completing 
the  course,  one  because  she  "wanted  more  training"  and 
the  other  because  she  was  "too  young  to  work."  Another 
girl  "could  not  find  a  position  because  she  was  too  small 
and  too  young."  Two  were  doing  "general  office  work" 
and  one  was  a  salesgirl. ^ 

Two  of  the  six  who  had  one  year  of  preliminary  high 
school  work  and  three  of  the  four  with  two  years'  work 
before  taking  up  the  intensive  course  were  able  to  secure 
positions  as  stenographers  at  S8,  showing  the  advantage 
of  the  increased  preliminary  education. 

The   whole   question   of   commercial   education   had 

«  Catalogue  of  RoxbuTu  Hi(}h  School,  1912-1913,  page  9. 

"One  moved  to  New  York.     Two  at  work  not  known.     One  unclassified. 


12  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

become  such  a  serious  problem  because  of  the  large 
numbers  of  pupils  involved  and  the  large  sums  of  money 
expended  that  Mr.  Frank  Thompson,  Assistant  Superin- 
tendent of  the  Boston  Schools  and  in  charge  of  the  voca- 
tional schools,  instituted  a  three-fold  survey  of  the  whole 
situation  in  the  fall  of  1913.  The  present  study  under- 
took to  throw  light  on  some  of  the  problems  of  training 
girls  for  office  service. 

The  first  and  most  natural  question  would  doubtless 
be,  how  many  girls  are  being  trained  for  office  service 
in  the  public  high  schools  of  Boston?  Second,  what 
proportion  are  utilizing  their  training  and  succeeding 
in  their  chosen  vocation?  The  first  question  can  be 
easily  answered  from  the  school  records.  The  popu- 
larity of  vocational  or  "practical"  training,  as  the 
children  and  parents  phrase  it,  is  rapidly  changing  the 
whole  character  of  the  Boston  high  schools.  Almost 
two-thirds  (63.4  per  cent)  of  the  5,832  girls  enrolled 
in  the  Boston  high  schools  in  1913  were  studying  at 
least  one  of  the  three  so-called  commercial  subjects, 
phonography,  typewriting  and  bookkeeping.  In  the 
more  congested  neighborhoods,  like  Charlestown  and 
East  Boston,  where  the  economic  pressure  is  heaviest, 
four-fifths  of  the  girls  were  studying  these  technical  sub- 
jects and  in  the  Roxbury  and  Girls'  High  Schools,  more 
than  two-thirds.  The  suburban  high  schools,  drawing 
from  somewhat  more  comfortable  and  less  congested 
districts,  have  about  one-half  their  students  in  each 
group,  the  academic  and  the  technical. 

The  second  question  is,  however,  practically  impossible 
to  answer  satisfactorily  under  existing  conditions.  The 
records  of  the  public  high  schools  do  not  show  what 
becomes  of  the  child  who  has  left  school.  Nor  do  the 
existing  records  make  it  possible  for  the  investigator  to 
make  a  comprehensive  canvass  of  the  graduates.  For 
instance,  a  list  with  addresses  of  212  graduates  in  a 
class  leaving  June,  1913,  was  revised  by  the  class 
secretary  some  six  months  later.  The  revised  list 
showed  that  39.6  per  cent  of  the  addresses  on  the  school 


INTRODUCTORY. 


13 


list  were  incorrect.  As  a  result,  the  large  proportion 
"not  located"  in  even  a  recent  class  makes  impracti- 
cable a  study  of  efficiency  on  this  basis.  Moreover, 
business  depression  in  the  winter  of  1913  to  1 914  made  the 
problem  of  securing  employment  abnormally  difficult  and 
a  study  of  a  class  just  graduating  could  not  be  considered 
representative.  As  soon  as  the  time  element  enters, 
the  difficulty  of  making  a  study  of  a  class  as  a  whole 

Table  4. —  Showing  Proportion  of  Girls  in  the  Boston  High  Schools 
taking  one  or  more  Commercial  Subjects,   1912  to  1913. ' 


High  Schools. 


Pupils  Enrolled  as  Specified  in  each 
High  School. 


Total  Number 
Girls  Enrolled. 


STUDENTS    OF    COMMERCIAL 
SUBJECTS. 


Number. 


Per  Cent. 


Brighton 

Charlestown . . . 
Dorchester. . . . 
East  Boston . . . 

Girls' 

Hyde  Park.... 
South  Boston. . 

Roxbury 

West  Roxbury. 


272 
270 

1,065 
322 

1,887 
234 
501 
774 
507 


146 
224 
568 
260 
1,320 
123 
287 
516 
255 


53.7 
83.0 
53.3 
80.7 
69.9 
52.6 
57.3 
66.7 
50.3 


Totals. 


5,832 


3,699 


63.4 


1  Excluding  Girls'  Latin  and  High  School  of  Practical  Arts. 

increases,  for  the  numbers  "not  located"  necessarily 
become  larger  and  the  girls  go  into  other  lines  of  work. 
A  class  of  28  girls  graduating  in  1911  showed  the  fol- 
lowing returns  in  1913:  57.2  per  cent  still  in  office  work, 
10.7  per  cent  in  lines  other  than  office  work  and  32.1 
per  cent  not  located.  A  class  of  115  girls  graduating 
in  1908  from  a  school  in  quite  a  different  neighborhood 
showed  the  following  returns  in  1913:  24.3  per  cent  still 
in  office  service,  13.1  per  cent  in  lines  other  than  office 
work,  13.9  per  cent  married,  7.8  per  cent  at  home  and 
40.9  per  cent  not  located. 


14  WOMEN   IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

A  subsequent  study  of  the  product  of  a  vocational 
school  as  a  basis  of  measuring  its  efficiency  is  therefore 
necessarily  confined  at  present  to  a  group  of  young 
people  who  have  survived  the  selective  effect  of  the 
school,  the  selective  effect  of  the  occupation  and  re- 
mained relatively  stable.  This,  however,  does  not 
make  it  an  unrepresentative  group  for  the  two  influences 
first  mentioned  have  borne  on  all  workers  in  the  occupa- 
tion and  the  third,  stability  of  residence,  does  not  seem 
to  have  a  noticeably  selective  effect.  A  comparison 
of  the  310  girls  taken  from  school  records  actually 
found  and  still  working  in  the  occupation  for  which 
they  were  trained,  showed  a  very  close  relation  in  wage 
and  advancement  to  the  806  of  similar  length  of  experi- 
ence secured  from  offices  at  large. ^ 

^Vhat  proportion  of  the  pupils  of  a  vocational  school 
may  be  expected  to  utilize  their  training  is  a  problem 
which  has  not  yet  been  worked  out.  It  should  be  worked 
out  and  can  be  if  such  schools  will  develop  an  active 
placement  bureau  and  "follow  up"  system  for  keeping 
in  touch  with  their  pupils  during  the  first  few  years  out 
of  school.  The  Dorchester  High  School  has  already 
established  such  a  bureau  and  will  doubtless  develop 
within  the  next  few  years  an  adequate  record  of  the 
pupils  who  have  been  trained  in  the  school. 

Since  the  city  public  schools  are  becoming  so  largely 
vocational,  the  need  of  a  more  intimate  acquaintance 
with  the  vocation  for  which  they  are  training  has 
become  increasingly  apparent.  For  the  needs  and 
requirements  of  this  vocation  of  office  service  for  which 
so  many  girls  are  being  trained,  and  with  which  every- 
one is  somewhat  acquainted,  has  curiously  enough  never 
been  studied  or  analyzed  intensively  and  extensively 
from  the  triple  standpoint  of  employer,  worker  and 
educator.2  Since  the  efficiency  of  vocational  education 
is  tested   by  the  working  experience  and   productive 

1  See  chapter  IV,  page  143. 

2  MiB3  Post  made  a  study  of  Opportunities  for  Women  in  Secretarial  Service  in  1913 
limiting  it  to  women  earning  $10  and  over.  Department  of  Research,  Women's  Educa- 
tional and  Industrial  Union,  Vocations  for  the  Trained  Woman,  Part  II,  page  113  et  stQ. 


INTRODUCTORY.  15 

power  of  the  pupils  trained,  this  new  form  of  education 
calls  for  three  innovations  in  school  administration. 
First,  a  systematic  effort  must  be  made  to  secure  an 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  vocation,  its  needs, 
demands  and  working  conditions.  Second,  the  school 
must  have  an  equally  close  acquaintance  with  the  pro- 
spective worker,  her  personal  and  home  background 
and  her  natural  capacities  as  well  as  her  possibilities 
for  development.  Third,  the  educator  must  assume 
systematic  direction  and  supervision  of  the  prospective 
or  actual  young  worker.  He  must  direct  and  super- 
vise her  not  only  during  the  time  of  her  preliminary 
preparation,  but  also  must  see  that  she  is  well  placed 
and  keep  informed  of  her  progress  or  failure.  For 
through  the  working  experience  of  the  pupil  who  has 
been  trained,  the  school  must  learn  from  both  worker 
and  employer  what  phases  and  kind  of  instruction 
should  be  strengthened,  eliminated  or  introduced  as  a 
new  experiment. 

The  purpose  of  this  study,  therefore,  is  not  to  analyze 
the  existing  curriculum  nor  to  attempt  to  plan  or  outline 
a  new  course  of  study.  Such  is  not  the  problem  of  the 
investigator  but  of  the  educator.  The  aim  of  this 
study  is  to  present  the  business,  economic  and  social 
conditions  which  confront  the  public  commercial  high 
schools  and  which  should  determine  the  formulation 
of  their  curricula.  The  educator,  with  all  these  facts 
at  his  disposal,  may  then  diagnose  the  situation  and 
prescribe  the  course  of  treatment. 

To  meet  this  demand  the  problem  has  been  approached 
from  the  several  points  of  attack,  the  school,  the  em- 
ployer and  the  worker.  Starting  with  the  school,  five 
of  the  nine  high  schools  providing  commercial  training 
for  girls  were  selected  from  different  types  of  neighbor- 
hoods for  intensive  study.  The  day  high  school,  its 
organization,  curriculum  and  equipment  were  first 
studied  to  provide  the  necessary  background.  Class 
groups  of  girls  trained  in  commercial  subjects,  ranging 
from    1905   to    1913,    and    thus   representing   different 


16 


WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


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INTRODUCTORY. 


17 


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18  WOMEN  IX  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

degrees  of  development  in  the  school  curriculum  and 
in  the  experience  of  the  worker,  provided  935  cases,  of 
which  334,  or  35.7  per  cent,  were  identified  still  in  office 
service.  One  hundred  and  fifty-nine,  47.6  per  cent  of 
these,  and  151  attending  evening  commercial  high 
schools,  with  widely  varying  preparation,  were  visited 
in  their  homes  and  offices  to  secure  information  con- 
cerning their  social,  educational  and  business  life  and 
the  interrelation  and  interdependence  of  one  upon  the 
other.  The  schedules  on  pages  16  and  17  were  used  to 
record  the  statistics  secured. 

The  five  evening  commercial  high  schools,  held  in  the 
same  buildings  as  the  day  schools,  were  studied  by  a 
somewhat  different  method.  The  students  were  pre- 
sumably employed  during  the  day  and  several  questions 
were  uppermost.  How  and  in  what  are  these  girls 
employed  during  the  day?  Are  they  attending  night 
school  to  supplement  their  daily  work  or  to  lift  them- 
selves out  of  and  above  their  present  occupation?  To 
what  extent  does  their  personal,  educational  and  work- 
ing background  provide  an  adequate  foundation  for 
the  occupation  to  which  they  are  aspiring?  To  answer 
these  questions,  the  investigators  were  allowed  to  go 
through  the  classes  of  the  evening  schools,  distributing 
the  questionnaire  on  page  19  which  was  explained  to 
to  the  pupils  and  filled  out  under  individual  and  personal 
supervision.  Eight  hundred  and  sixty-one  completed 
schedules  were  secured,  representing  31.9  per  cent  of 
the  total  number  of  girls  enrolled  in  the  evening  com- 
mercial schools  in  February,  1913.^  These  returns, 
however,  represented  almost  one-half  (43.8  per  cent) 
of  "the  average  number  belonging,"  -  which  is  a  better 
basis  of  comparison. 

Less  than  one-half  (40.5  per  cent)  of  these  girls  worked 
in  offices  during  the  day  and  12  per  cent  worked  in 
mercantile  establishments  and  so  could  be  said  to  be 

1  Annual  Statistics  of  the  Boston  Public  Schools,  1912.  School  Document  No.  9,  1913, 
page  43. 

'  The  school  reports  on  "average  number  belonging"  are  securecl  by  adding  the  number 
belonging  at  the  end  of  each  month  and  dividing  by  the  number  of  months. 


INTRODUCTORY. 


19 


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20  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 

supplementing  their  equipment  for  their  present  occupa- 
tion. The  variety  in  occupational  and  educational 
background  alone  shows  the  complexity  of  the  problem 
which  confronts  the  evening  schools. 

The  degree  of  success  and  efficiency  of  equipment  as 
shown  in  the  subsequent  working  experience  of  the  girls 
trained  in  the  public  high  schools  could  be  determined 
only  in  comparison  with  those  engaged  in  the  occupation 
as  a  whole.  Since  the  United  States  Census  provided 
no  statistics  on  wages,  an  individual  and  local  survey 
of  the  financial  possibilities  in  the  trade  as  a  whole  was 
secured  through  three  sources,  the  placement  records  of 
typewriter  and  employment  agencies,  the  published 
annual  salary  lists  of  the  Massachusetts  Civil  Service 
Commission  and  through  workers  employed  in  the 
offices. 

The  five  large  typewriter  companies  of  Boston  gen- 
erously allowed  transcripts  to  be  taken  from  their 
placement  records  of  the  year  1913,  which  provided  the 
essential  statistics  for  9,488  cases.  These  records  pro- 
vided numbers  placed  per  month,  wages  at  which  they 
were  placed,  kind  of  business,  and  an  index  to  their 
training  as  summarized  under  the  following  heads, 
"experienced,"  "inexperienced,"  "commercial  school," 
or  "public  high  school."  The  records  showed  the  sur- 
prising fact  that  more  than  one-half  (51.3  per  cent) 
of  this  large  group  was  placed  at  a  wage  ranging  from 
$12  to  $15  inclusive.  Another  source,  the  published 
list  of  Civil  Service  employees,  showed  495  women 
engaged  in  office  work  under  Massachusetts  Civil  Service 
regulations  during  the  year  1913,  and  almost  the  same 
proportion  (47.5  per  cent)  earned  from  $11  to  $15 
inclusive,  though  almost  an  equal  proportion  (45.5  per 
cent)  earned  more  than  $15. 

The  women  placed  by  the  typewriter  agencies  and 
those  working  under  Civil  Service  regulations  were, 
however,  a  selected  group,  sifted  by  tests  for  speed  and 
general  intelligence  and  equipment.  It  was  necessary, 
therefore,  to  secure  a  large  group  of  workers  from  all 


INTRODUCTORY. 


21 


sources  and  representing  all  types  of  workers  to  afford  a 
background  for  comparison.  A  local  canvass  was  made 
with  the  co-operation  of  employers  and  workers  to  secure 
some  of  the  essential  statistics  relative  to  the  personal, 
educational  and  business  background  of  the  women 
working  in  all  types  of  offices.  The  small  lawyer's 
office  and  the  corner  grocery  store,  where  only  one  girl 
worked;  the  large  factory,  the  bank  and  the  department 
store  employing  from  fifty  to  five  hundred  in  their 
offices;  educational  institutions  and  charitable  organ- 
izations were  visited   and   records  of   their   experience 

[SCHEDULE  USED  FOR  LOCAL  CANVASS.] 


Single At  home 

Age Birthplace Married Boarding 

School— Number  Years  in  (  Grammar Graduate Time  in  '  ■■"■ 

l  High Graduate Commercial  School.. 

Total                                                    Total  Number 

Business  Experience — Time Office  Work — Time Positions  . 


Business 
of  Firm 

Your 
Position 

Wage 

Time  Emp. 

How 
Found 

First 

Last 

Yrs. 

Mos. 

Leaving 

1st 

2d 

3d 

4th 

5th 

Hours  of  Present  Position A.  M P.  M.  Saturday P.  M.  Hour... 


secured  from  834  women.  In  addition,  several  large 
offices,  which  kept  some  personal  statistics  of  their 
employees,  allowed  transcripts  to  be  taken  from  their 
records,  which  provided  data  concerning  343  additional 
women.i  Altogether,  therefore,  the  experience  of  1,177 
women,  8.6  per  cent  of  the  number  reported  for  oflEice 
service  in  Boston  in  1910,-  provided  a  background  for 
comparison  and  for  intensive  study. 

Employers  provided  the  third  source  of  information. 

>  These  records  naturally  did  not  cover  all  points  on  the  small  card  used  to  record  the 
data  secured  from  the  834  women.  For  this  reason,  the  total  number  of  cases  is  not  the 
same  for  all  tables  and  in  some  tables  there  is  a  comparatively  largo  number  "unclassified." 

>  United  States  Census,  1910,  Vol.  IV,  Population,  Occupation  Statistics,  page  541. 


22  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 

No  attempt  was  made  to  secure  statistics  through 
interviews  with  employers,  but  rather  to  become  initi- 
ated into  the  business  atmosphere  and  to  attempt  to 
appreciate  the  needs  and  demands  of  the  business  man, 
and  of  the  conditions  in  a  business  office,  that  this 
report  might  show  concretely  (1)  the  kinds  of  office 
work  open  to  women;  (2)  the  requirements  of  educa- 
tion, maturity,  technique  and  personality  requisite 
for  the  different  occupations;  (3)  the  opportunities 
and  the  conditions  determining  advancement;  and 
(4)  the  openings  for  and  requisites  of  the  beginner.  All 
kinds  of  employers  representing  production,  trade  and 
the  professions  were  visited  and  all  were  interested, 
courteous  and  most  co-operative. 

Educators  have  frequently  expressed  discouragement 
that  employers  could  not  tell  them  definitely  what 
courses  in  the  curriculum  would  or  would  not  be  helpful; 
but  why  should  the  employer  be  expected  to  think  in 
terms  of  courses  or  subjects?  If  an  employer  expresses 
despair  over  the  fact  that  when  he  dictates  a  letter  to 
IVIr.  John  Smith,  419  Locust  street,  St.  Louis,  his 
stenographer  asks,  "What  state  is  that  in?",  has  not  the 
educator  received  an  answer  to  his  question?  Or,  if 
the  employer  says,  ''The  girl  must  have  business 
sense"  or  "she  must  have  an  appreciation  of  the  con- 
fidential character  of  the  correspondence  which  she 
takes  from  her  employer,"  need  the  educator  ask  what 
is  the  minimum  age  for  satisfactory  work  in  such  an 
office?  He  knows  these  requirements  are  not  easily 
met  by  the  girl  under  eighteen  or  twenty  years  of  age. 
The  educator,  therefore,  must  assume  the  attitude  of 
the  physician  —  asking  questions  which  will  reveal 
symptoms  and  interpreting  their  significance  in  the  light 
of  his  broad  and  general  experience. 

From  these  varied  sources  a  mass  of  statistics  and 
information  has  been  collected  for  the  first  time  on  this 
group  of  workers  employed  in  offices,  and  is  presented 
in  the  following  chapters.  With  this  information  at 
their  disposal,  educators  should  be  able  to  formulate 


INTRODUCTORY.  23 

and  organize  more  intelligently  than  ever  before  their 
commercial  schools  and  courses.  Three  facts  discovered 
yield  important  suggestions  to  the  educator  in  the 
formulation  of  a  curriculum.  (1)  The  marked  influence 
of  education  in  determining  the  occupation  which  the 
pupil  is  able  to  enter,  and  the  salary  she  will  be  able  to 
earn  makes  the  question  of  shortened  undergraduate 
courses  of  training  one  for  most  serious  consideration. 
The  present  study  shows  so  conclusively  the  necessity 
for  the  broadest  possible  preliminary  education,  that  all 
applicants  for  these  short  courses  should  be  very  care- 
fully sifted.  All  should  be  urged  to  complete  the  four 
years'  course  if  possible  and  the  advantages  of  doing  so 
made  apparent.  It  is  a  question  for  serious  considera- 
tion even  then,  whether  it  is  advisable  to  attempt  to 
train  for  stenographers  those  girls  who  cannot  complete 
the  four  years'  course.  The  proposed  new  Clerical 
High  School  for  Girls  seems  to  recognize  the  dubious 
possibility  of  equipping  a  stenographer  in  less  than  four 
years.  The  plan  provides  for  the  first  two  years  of 
general  work  in  high  school.  In  the  third  year,  girls 
who  must  leave  at  the  end  of  that  year  may  take  a 
specialized  clerical  course  of  one  year  which  aims  to  train 
them  intensively  and  directly  for  a  clerical  position. 
The  stenographer  must,  however,  have  four  years  of 
training  which  may  be  planned  and  developed  to  meet 
the  needs  and  previous  equipment  of  the  individual  girl. 
Again,  the  very  apparent  financial  advantage  resulting 
from  the  intensive  technical  training  when  added  to  a 
high  school  education  as  a  foundation  suggests  the 
importance  of  developing  and  encouraging  such  a  post- 
graduate course  as  has  been  established  in  the  Dor- 
chester High  School.  (2)  The  demand  from  the  busi- 
ness world  for  "general  intelligence,"  "personality"  and 
"business  sense"  shows  that  equipment  in  technique 
is  by  no  means  the  sole  problem  confronting  the  school, 
if  its  success  is  to  be  measured  by  the  success  of  its 
graduates.  The  emphasis  to  be  placed  on  the  various 
subjects  of  the  curriculum,  however,  must  be  determined 


24  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

by  the  local  conditions  and  needs  of  each  neighborhood. 
(3)  The  school  must  assume  responsibility  for  and 
supervision  of  its  graduates.  Only  through  scientific 
and  wise  placement  will  the  pupil  and  the  employer 
secure  the  best  results  of  the  training  given  and,  through 
the  experience  and  close  co-operation  of  both,  must  the 
educator  work  out  an  elastic  and  ever-changing  but 
continually  improved  course  of  study  and  system  of 
administration. 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  25 


CHAPTER     IL— THE     PUBLIC     SCHOOL     AND 
ITS    PROBLEMS 


Lucy  C.  Phinney 


So  great  has  become  the  demand  for  "business  educa- 
tion" for  girls  that  nine  of  the  eleven  Boston  high 
schools  open  to  girls  in  1913  to  1914  offered  commercial 
courses.^  In  these  nine  general  high  schools  5,832  girls 
were  enrolled  in  1912  to  1913,  of  whom  3,699  (or  63.4  per 
cent)  elected  one  or  more  technical  commercial  subjects, 
phonography,  typewriting,  and  bookkeeping.  The  pro- 
portion electing  these  subjects  in  the  different  schools 
varies,  however,  according  to  the  type  of  neighborhood. 
In  the  most  congested  districts,  more  than  80  per  cent 
elected  commercial  subjects  as  compared  with  about 
50  per  cent  in  the  suburbs. ^  The  five  schools  chosen 
for  intensive  study  were,  therefore,  selected  to  represent 
the  different  types  of  neighborhoods  which  determine  to 
a  large  extent  the  problems  confronting  the  school. 

The  Girls'  High  School  in  the  South  End  draws  from 
all  portions  of  the  city  proper,  and  also  admits  girls 
from  outlying  districts  up  to  the  capacity  of  the  school. 
More  than  two-thirds  of  its  pupils  were  enrolled  in  com- 
mercial courses.  East  Boston  has  a  high  school  for  its 
own  thickly  populated  district,  and  admits  both  boys 
and  girls.  The  Charlestown  High  School  is  in  a  con- 
gested and  homogeneous  neighborhood,  admitting  boys 
and  girls  who  reside  in  Charlestown  and  in  the  North 
and  West  Ends.  In  East  Boston  and  Charlestown 
High  Schools  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  girls  elected 
one  or  more  of  the  technical  commercial  subjects, 
doubtless  with  a  desire  to  equip  themselves  for  self- 

1  The  two  other  schools  are  the  Girls'  Latin  School  and  the  Practical  Arts  High  School, 
which  offer  specialized  academic  and  industrial  training  respectively. 

2  See  Chapter  I,  Table  4,  page  13. 


26  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

support  or  to  meet  the  necessity  of  contributing  to  the 
family  income.  Roxbury  High  School,  for  girls  alone, 
draws  from  a  less  homogeneous  locality,  a  part  of  the 
district  being  densely  populated  in  the  solid  blocks  of 
buildings,  while  another  part  still  has  many  private 
residences  of  well-to-do  families.  Two-thirds  of  the 
pupils  elected  commercial  subjects.  Dorchester,  which 
represents  a  more  suburban  and  residential  type,  admits 
boys  and  girls  from  an  area  ranging  from  the  borders  of 
South  Boston  to  Hyde  Park  and  Neponset,  comprising 
poor  as  well  as  very  prosperous  neighborhoods.  That 
the  economic  pressure  is  less  marked  in  the  Dorchester 
district  may  be  presumed  from  the  fact  that  only  slightly 
more  than  one-half  of  the  pupils  in  this  high  school 
elected  commercial  subjects. 

These  high  schools  all  offer,  besides  the  college, 
general,  and  normal  courses,  a  commercial  course,  which 
is  largely  clerical  in  nature.  This  commercial  course 
differs,  however,  in  the  various  schools,  according  to 
the  emphasis  on  the  correlation  with  commerce,  eco- 
nomics and  the  larger  aspects  of  business  life.  Some 
of  the  schools  offer  a  comprehensive  plan  for  all  four 
years  of  commercial  work,  with  correlation  between  the 
academic  and  vocational  subjects,  while  others  merely 
offer  a  ''list  of  subjects  and  the  points  required  for  the 
diploma,"  as  a  curriculum.  The  "departmental  sys- 
tem," under  which  the  commercial  course  has  a  separate 
departmental  head,  is  followed  very  largely  in  all  of  the 
schools,  although  the  commercial  department  in  some 
has  much  freer  scope  than  in  others.  In  such  schools, 
the  commercial  department  usually  demands  a  separate 
corps  of  teachers  with  business  experience,  and  the 
efficiency  of  the  course  is  increased,  in  consequence. 

Two  of  the  schools  deal  with  girls  exclusively,  but 
the  others  do  not  attempt  to  segregate  the  sexes,  except 
in  the  salesmanship  courses,  where  the  subject  matter  is 
entirely  different.  The  principles  of  wholesale  business 
are  given  to  boys,  and  of  retail  selling  to  girls,  necessita- 
ting the  separation.     Some  of  the  commercial  teachers 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  27 

feel  that  girls  profit  by  the  connection  with  the  boys  in 
their  courses.  A  boy's  mind  reacts  differently  from  a 
girl's  and  his  point  of  view  may  be  broadening.  Then 
too,  as  girls  are  to  be  associated  with  men  in  their 
business  careers,  companionship  with  boys  in  the  class- 
room cultivates  poise,  and  a  sense  of  proportion  in  their 
business  relations. 

Besides  the  regular  four  year  course,  Roxbury  High 
School  offers  two  intensified  courses  for  girls  who  can 
spend  only  a  short  time  in  high  school.  These  courses, 
which  may  be  completed  in  two  years,  or  even  less, 
if  satisfactory  work  is  done,  offer  training  for  stenog- 
raphers and  for  bookkeepers.  Practical  office  work  as 
clerical  assistants  in  the  offices  of  the  grammar  schools 
is  given  these  girls  as  part  of  their  course.  This  actual 
utilization  and  application  of  the  principles  gained  in  the 
classroom  provide  a  valuable  bit  of  preliminary  expe- 
rience and  acquaintance  with  actual  working  condi- 
tions, which  gives  a  more  real  significance  to  the  work 
of  the  classroom. 

Dorchester  also  offers  special  intensive  courses,  of 
one  year  each,  to  high  school  graduates.  One  is  for 
graduates  of  the  general  course  who  have  had  no  com- 
mercial work,  and  the  other  for  graduates  of  the  com- 
mercial course  who  wish  to  supplement  their  commercial 
training  by  further  practice.  The  former  course  is 
strongly  urged  as  the  school  feels  the  necessity  for  a 
broad  background  in  order  that  the  technical  training 
may  be  put  to  good  use.  The  benefit  resulting  from  such 
an  intensive  post-graduate  course  of  technical  sub- 
jects, supplementing  a  good  general  education,  is  also 
seen  in  the  increase  in  wage  ^  resulting  from  the  similar 
intensive  training  in  business  college,  and  is  probably 
due  very  largely  to  the  students'  greater  maturity  and 
to  that  capacity  to  assimilate  instruction  which  is  the 
result  of  a  well-trained  mind.  This  course  might  well 
be  introduced  into  those  schools  where  the  economic 
condition  of  the  neighborhood  makes  it  possible  for  a 

>  Chnpter  II,  page  38,  and  Chapter  IV,  pages  125  to  131. 


28  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

sufficient  number  of  pupils  to  spend  five  years  in  high 
school.  The  second  special  course  for  a  fifth  year  of 
intensive  practice  in  addition  to  the  four  years  of  com- 
mercial work  is  devoted  to  acquiring  greater  speed  and 
accuracy  in  shorthand  and  typewriting,  as  well  as  to 
work  on  special  office  machinery,  such  as  the  multi- 
graph,  billing-machine  and  neostyle.  Wherever  these 
special  courses  are  introduced,  they  should  be  designed, 
as  far  as  possible,  to  fill  the  demands  which  business 
colleges  are  already  meeting  for  a  considerable  pro- 
portion of  the  high  school  graduates.^ 

The  Commercial  Department  of  the  Dorchester  High 
School  has  made  a  very  helpful  connection  with  one  of 
the  large  retail  clothing  stores  which  takes  certain 
pupils  of  the  commercial  department  into  the  office 
when  "extra"  or  ''rush"  help  is  needed.  The  pupils 
secure  the  very  valuable  experience  of  being  initiated 
into  actual  business  conditions  and  of  measuring  them- 
selves up  to  business  standards.  This  experience  has 
a  decided  effect  on  the  quality  of  the  pupils'  work  and 
on  their  attitude  toward  their  studies,  for  a  realization 
of  the  demands  of  the  business  world  provides  a  stimulus 
to  the  pupils  to  correlate  the  technical  and  the  general 
studies  in  their  own  minds. 

Almost  two-thirds  (GO.l  per  cent)  of  the  858 ^  girls 
graduating  in  six  classes  from  the  several  high  schools, 
and  selected  from  a  period  ranging  from  1905  to  1913, 
had  studied  commercial  subjects.  Much  has  been  said 
of  the  comparative  scholarship  of  the  two  groups,  the 
academic  and  the  commercial.  A  study  of  comparative 
grades  seems  to  bear  out  the  popular  impression  that 
the  academic  student  represents  a  higher  mental  ability.^ 
More  than  two-thirds  (69  per  cent)  of  the  total  academic 
group  (342),  as  compared  with  two-fifths  (42,6  per  cent) 
of  the  commercial  students  (516)  received  a  median 
grade  of  not  less  than  "B"  in  all  their  courses.  Since 
proficiency  in  English  is  a  requisite  for  both  the  academic 

'  Chapter  U,  Table  10,  page  38. 

2  The  scholarship  records  were  taken  ofT  for  858  of  the  total  935  girls. 

•  Thompson,  Frank  V.     Commercial  Education. 


THE  PUBLIC   SCHOOL  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  29 

and  commercial  students,  comparison  of  their  relative 
standing  in  this  common  subject  seemed  to  be  a  fair 
basis    for    consideration;  almost    two-thirds    (64.3    per 
cent)    of  the  academic   students   again   and  but   two- 
fifths  of  the  commercial  girls  were  ranked  as  "A"  or 
"B"  students  in  their  English  courses.     But  the  com- 
mercial students  received  much  higher  grades  in  their 
own  technical  subjects  than  in  their  more  general  and 
cultural   work,    55.6   per   cent   getting   at   least    "B." 
That  the  practical  nature  of  these  subjects  evidently 
arouses  an  interest  in  certain  types  of  pupils  gives  a 
significant    hint    to    commercial    educators.     Correla- 
tion of  the  practical  with  the  cultural  subjects  may 
afford   the   necessary   stimulus   to   make   these   pupils 
give  a  better  showing  in  all  general  subjects.     Their 
mental  equipment  is  not  necessarily  inferior,  it  is  simply 
of  a  different  type.     Advocates  of  industrial  education 
describe  their  pupils  as  "motor-minded,"  that  is,  show- 
ing proficiency  in  doing  things  with  their  hands,  but 
perhaps    having    httle    interest    in    books.     May    not 
these  pupils  who  show  proficiency  in  commercial  sub- 
jects be  regarded  as  ''practical  minded"?     They  may 
feel  Uttle  interest  in  Chaucer's  poems  or  in  algebra  or 
geometry,  yet  be  most  enthusiastic  and  efficient  workers 
in  the  affairs  of  the  actual  world  about  them.     In  fact, 
the  experience  of  these  girls  after  leaving  school  proves 
their  possibilities,  for  almost  two-thirds  (62.9  per  cent) 
of  the  310  studied  from  the  schools  were  earning  S9  or 
more,  and  more  than  one-half  of  these  (54.4  per  cent) 
had  been  at  work  less  than  three  years. 

The  relative  persistence  of  the  two  types  of  students 
taking  the  academic  and  the  vocational  courses  has 
also  been  a  subject  of  much  discussion.  Vocational 
educators  are  confronted  with  the  tendency  of  their 
pupils  to  leave  school  as  soon  as  they  have  acquired  a 
few  of  the  principles  of  their  subject.  This  tendency  is 
verified  by  the  record  of  a  large  class  of  635  girls  enter- 
ing one  of  the  Boston  high  schools  in  1909,  441  (69.4  per 
cent)  of  whom  registered  for  commercial  subjects. 


30  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

IMore  than  three-fourths  of  both  groups  returned  for 
the  second  year.  Thus,  both  the  academic  and  the 
commercial  groups  started  in  the  second  year  at  high 
school  with  a  reduction  of  less  than  25  per  cent  of  their 
original  number  and  the  same  proportion  of  loss.  But 
the  commercial  students  had  dropped  out  in  much  larger 
numbers  throughout  the  second  and  before  the  beginning 
of  the  third  year.  Only  52.2  per  cent  of  the  original 
commercial  group  returned  for  a  third  year's  work  as 
compared  with  63.4  per  cent  of  the  academic  students.^ 
Nevertheless,  the  rate  of  persistence  up  to  the  third 
year  in  this  particular  high  school,  which  draws  from  a 
large  and  congested  area,  is  higher  than  that  reported 
by  the  Washington  Irving  High  School  in  New  York 
which,  ranking  highest  in  persistence  in  New  York  City, 
retained  but  ''46  per  cent  of  commercial  girls  .  .  . 
until  the  third  year  (as)  against  47  per  cent  of  girls 
pursuing  academic  work."  ^  However,  a  more  marked 
difference  between  the  loss  of  the  commercial  and 
academic  pupils  appears  in  the  Boston  high  school. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  year,  42.4  per  cent  of 
the  commercial  and  54.7  per  cent  of  the  academic  pupils 
in  this  particular  Boston  high  school  returned  to  com- 
plete their  four  year  course.  Forty  per  cent  (40.9  per 
cent)  of  the  total  number  enrolled  in  the  commercial 
courses  (441  in  the  entering  class  and  16  transfers  from 
other  schools)  received  diplomas.  A  larger  proportion 
(57.4  per  cent)  of  the  academic  group  (161  original 
pupils  and  22  transfers)  graduated.  The  difference 
between  the  proportion  of  students  who  graduate  from 
the  commercial  and  from  the  academic  course  is  not  as 
great  as  has  been  supposed.  Nor  is  the  annual  per- 
centage of  loss  ^  greatly  different  until  the  second  year, 
being  about  one-fourth  during  the  first  year  both  in 
the    commercial    and    academic    groups.     During    the 

'  See  page  31  et  xeq.  for  further  discussion  and  explanation. 

'  Thompson,  Frank  V.     Commercial  Education. 

♦The  term  "annual  loss"  covers  all  students  dropping  out  between  September 
and  August,  inclusive,  in  order  to  account  for  those  who  do  not  return  after  the  summer 
vacation. 


THE  PUBLIC   SCHOOL   AND   ITS  PROBLEMS. 


31 


second  year,  however,  the  loss  was  almost  twice  as 
great  among  the  commercial  (30.7  per  cent)  as  the 
academic  students  (16.5  per  cent),  and  during  the  third 
year  about  one  and  one-half  times.  (See  Table  5.)  The 
average  annual  loss  for  the  first  three  years  was  24.1 
per  cent  in  the  commercial  group  and  17.5  per  cent  in 
the  academic  group. 

This  heavy  loss  of  the  commercial  students  during 
and  at  the  end  of  the  second  year  is  doubtless  due  to 
various  causes.     In  the  first  place,  many  of  the  girls 

Table  5. —  Showing  the  Comparative  Annual  Loss  ^  of  the  Com- 
mercial and  Academic  Students  in  a  Boston  High  School. 


Pupils  Enbolled  and  Leaving  bt  Specified  Yeab. 

FIRST  YEAR.                1 

SECOND  TEAR. 

THIRD   YEAR. 

Course. 

Total 
Number 
Enrolled. 

2 

Proportion 
dropped  out. 

Total 
Number 
Enrolled. 

2 

Proportion 
dropped  out. 

Total 
Number 
Enrolled. 

2 

Proportion 
dropped  out. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Commercial. . . . 
Academic 

442 
161 

105 
38 

23.8 
23.6 

345 
127 

106 
21 

30.7 
16.5 

241 
113 

43 
14 

17.8 
12.4 

I  See  note  3,  page  30 

'  Number  registered  in  September  plus  transfers  during  the  year. 

reach  the  age  of  sixteen  during  the  second  year  at  high 
school,  and  can  easily  find  employment  in  positions  not 
requiring  particular  skill  or  maturity.  Girls  in  evening 
school  illustrate  this  type  which  has  been  induced  to 
leave  school  by  the  prospect  of  a  position,  and  then  finds 
it  necessary  to  come  back  for  further  schooling  in  order 
to  advance  beyond  the  first  wage.  If  these  girls  have 
gone  into  office  service,  they  seem  to  find  it  especially 
hard  to  advance  without  thorough  training,  for  40.5 
per  cent  of  all  the  girls  who  came  back  to  evening  school 
were  engaged  in  some  of  the  branches  of  office  service, 
nearly  one-half  of  whom  had  begun  work  before  they 
were  sixteen.  These  very  young  girls  were  able  to  find 
work  only  in  the  lower  grades  of  office  service,  but  only 


32  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 

one-fourth  of  the  eighty-nine  stenographers  and  typists 
had  begun  work  before  sixteen  years  of  age. 

The  few  rudiments  of  commercial  subjects  gained  by 
the  end  of  the  second  year  may  also  be  an  inducement  to 
the  girl  to  leave  school.  The  curriculum  provides  eight 
hours  a  week  of  bookkeeping,  which  includes  commercial 
arithmetic,  penmanship,  and  commercial  forms,  and 
five  hours  of  typewriting  in  connection  with  phonog- 
raphy, before  the  end  of  the  second  year.  This  small 
equipment  of  some  of  the  elementary  technique  of  office 
service  proves  a  temptation  to  many  of  the  girls  to  try 
to  get  a  clerical  position. 

Thus,  more  than  one-half  of  the  girls  in  evening 
schools,  who  were  clerks  and  copyists  or  bookkeepers 
and  cashiers,  had  gone  to  work  before  they  were  sixteen. 
And  these  girls  who  have  started  with  so  little  back- 
ground and  education  will  find  it  a  hard  and  narrow 
road  from  these  first  low-paid  clerical  positions  to  work 
involving  larger  responsibility  and  larger  pay.  Not 
only  is  there  a  temptation,  if  not  an  actual  necessity  to 
go  to  work  early  w^here  economic  pressure  is  heavy  or 
comes  suddenly  and  unexpectedly,  but  also  where 
neither  the  child  nor  the  parent  has  been  brought  to 
realize  the  importance  of  the  broadest  possible  education. 

Economic  pressure,  as  influenced  by  the  character  of 
the  father's  occupation,  may  cause  the  larger  loss  in  the 
commercial  group  at  the  end  of  the  second  year  of  high 
school.  Where  the  father's  income  is  small,  as  in  the 
lower  grades  of  manufacturing  and  domestic  and  personal 
service,  all  the  children  may  be  called  upon  to  contribute 
to  the  family  at  any  time  of  special  stress,  such  as  during 
illness  or  loss  of  position.  Manufacturing  and  domestic 
and  personal  service  occupy  a  somewhat  larger  propor- 
tion of  the  fathers  of  the  commercial  than  of  the  aca- 
demic students,  while  the  better-paid  occupations  of 
the  professions  and  trade  and  transportation  engage 
more  of  the  fathers  of  the  academic  group.    (See  Table  6.) 

The  father's  occupation  and  income  may  also  deter- 
mine the  nature  of  the  course  which  the  child  elects  in 


THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS. 


33 


the  beginning.  Naturally  where  the  economic  pressure 
is  heavy,  the  girl  wishes  to  fit  herself  as  a  wage-earner. 
But  even  when  in  more  comfortable  circumstances,  there 
is  a  general  desire  among  girls  to  fit  themselves  for  some 
useful  occupation. 

The  efficiency  of  vocational  education  must  be  tested 
by  the  experience  of  the  pupils  trained,  and  satisfactory 
information  concerning  their  subsequent  experience  can 
be  secured  only  through  personal  interviews.  A  group 
of  935  girls  graduating  from  classes  ranging  from  1905 


Table  6. —  Showing  the  Relation  between  Father's  Occupation 
and  High  School  Course  Elected. 


Pupils  Whose  Fathers  are  in  Specified  Occupations. 

Course. 

MANUF-^CTURES. 

domestic  and 
personal 

SERVICE. 

PROFESSIONAL 
SERVICE. 

trade  and 

TRAN8POR- 

t.\.tion. 

Total. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Commercial . . 
Academic 

172 
94 

36.7 

i 
31.6 

70 
36 

15.0 
12.1 

23 
29 

4.9 
9.8 

203 
138 

43.4 
46.5 

468« 
297» 

100.0 
100.0 

Total.... 

266 

34.7 

106 

13.9 

52 

6.8 

341 

44.6 

765 

100.0 

>  48  additional  commercial  students  were  unclassified  as  to  father's  occupation. 
'  45  additional  academic  students  were  unclassified  as  to  father's  occupation. 


to  1913  in  the  five  high  schools  was,  therefore,  taken 
for  intensive  study.  The  usual  difficulties  of  tracing 
children,  who  have  been  out  of  school  some  years,  were 
intensified  by  the  fact  that  the  school  records  on  the 
"summary"  sheets  kept  in  the  office  usually  provided 
the  girl's  address  given  only  at  the  time  she  first  entered. 
Thus,  as  the  address  of  a  girl  graduating  in  190S  might 
be  that  given  by  her  in  1904,  when  she  first  enrolled  in 
the  school,  the  investigator  sought  the  girl  with  an 
address  nine  years  old.^     In  spite  of  these  handicaps, 

'  A  list  of  212  addresses  secured  from  the  "summary"  record  cards  for  a  chiiw  graduating 
in  June,  1913,  was  revised  by  the  cliws  secretary  in  the  following  winter.  This  revised  list 
showed  84  addresses  (39.6  per  cent)  which  differed  from  the  school  records,  and  illu.strates 
the  great  handicap  in  tracing  even  the  most  recent  classes. 


34 


WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 


however,  information  as  to  the  present  occupation  was 
secured  from  542  girls,  more  than  one-half  (58  per  cent) 
of  the  total  number.  One  hundred  and  fifty  (16  per 
cent)  had  moved  and  could  not  be  traced.  (See  Table  7.) 
More  than  one-third  (35.7  per  cent)  of  the  whole  group 
of  graduates  studied  from  the  day  high  schools  were 
found  to  be  using  their  commercial  training  and  holding 


Table  7. —  Showing  Summary  of  Information  Secured  Concerning 
935  High  School  Pupils  of  Fourteen  Graduating  Classes  from 
1905  to  1913.1 


Classification. 

Pupils  in  Specified 
Occupation. 

Number. 

Per  Cent  of 
Total. 

446 

47.6 

334 
35 

77 

35.7 

3.7 

8.2 

96 

10.4 

65 
23 

S 

7,0 

2.5 

.9 

150 
243 

10.0 

20 . 0 

Total                              

935 

100.0 

'  Based  on  personal  interviews  and  information  secured  from  teachers  and  classmates. 

positions  in  office  service  at  the  present  time.  Nearly 
one-half,  159,  of  these  girls  in  office  service  were  visited 
to  secure  information  concerning  their  personal  history 
and  their  business  experience.  Sixty-four  high  school 
graduates  working  in  offices  during  the  day  were  also 
secured  from  evening  commercial  high  schools  and 
social  centers,  making  a  total  of  223  graduates.  In 
addition,  62  who  had  started  in  high  school  but  had 
not  completed  the  four  year  course  and  25  girls  who 
had  not  entered  high  school  at  all  but  were  attending 


THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  35 

the  evening  commercial  high  schools  were  secured  from 
the  same  sources  for  comparison  of  the  experience  of  girls 
with  different  preparation.  Therefore,  the  experience 
of  a  group  of  310  school  girls,  of  which  223  were  day 
high  school  graduates,  62  were  high  school  non-graduates, 
and  25  had  not  attended  day  high  school,  provided  the 
basis  for  the  study  of  the  efficiency  of  the  public  school 
commercial  training. 

These  girls  were  all  in  some  one  of  the  four  branches  of 
office  service,  as  secretaries,  stenographers,  bookkeepers 
or  clerical  workers.     Since  secretaries  are  vested  with 
a  good  deal  of  responsibility,  only  twenty-one  of  these 
young  high  school  graduates  had  yet  risen  to  such  a 
position.  1     Stenographers  and  typists,  who  require  the 
technical  skill  and  clerical  training  which  is  the  chief 
aim  of  the  four  year  high  school  course,  constituted  the 
majority,  three-fifths   (60.3  per  cent)   of  the  310  girls 
studied.     So-called    bookkeepers   in   large   offices  may 
be  little  more  than  clerks,  and  slightly  more  than  one- 
half    (54.4   per   cent)    of   the   57   bookkeepers   studied 
were  high  school  graduates.     For  bookkeeping  is  being 
revolutionized  by  the  differentiation  of  processes  with 
the  introduction  of  new  machines  and  the  systematiza- 
tion  of  office  routine.     Clerks  constitute  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  women  in  office  service,  more  than  half  of  a 
group  of  1,177  studied  through  offices  being  so  classified. 
As  little  or  no  technical  training  is  required  for  some  of 
the  lower  grades  of  clerical  positions,  which  at  the  same 
time  offer  little  advancement,  they  provide  the  openings 
for  girls  who  have  not  completed  their  high  school  course. 
A  comparatively  small  proportion  of  the  school  group 
studied,   therefore,   were  clerks,   less  than   one-half  of 
whom  were  high  school  graduates. 

The  marked  relationship  between  their  schooling  and 
their  occupation  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  only  37,  or  less 
than  one-half  of  the  87  girls  who  had  not  graduated  from 
day  high  schools,  were  stenographers.     (See  Table  8.) 

»  See  study  of  Opportunities  for  Women  in  Secretarial  Service  by  Department  of 
Research,  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  Vocations  for  the  Trained  Woman 
Part  n. 


36 


WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE, 


Clerks  and  bookkeepers  composed  56.3  per  cent  of 
the  87  who  were  not  high  school  graduates,  showing 
a  large  proportion  who  lacked  the  technical  training 
necessary  for  stenographic  work.  Four-fifths  (80.2  per 
cent)  of  the  187  stenographers  and  20  of  the  21  secre- 
taries had  graduated  from  high  school,  which  illustrates 
the  higher  degree  of  education  necessary  for  these  more 
responsible  positions,  and  is  corroborated  by  the  larger 
numbers  studied  from  offices.^ 

Table     8. —  Showing     Relation     of     the     Amount     of     Schooling     to 
the  Character  of  Work  in  Office  Service,  i 


Pupils  with  Specified  Schooling. 

HIGH    SCHOOL    GHADDATE8. 

HIGH    SCHOOL 
NON-GRADU- 
ATES. 

NO    HIGH 

SCHOOL 

TRAINING. 

OccrPATioN. 

With  Additional 

Training  in 

Business  College 

or  Evening 

School. 

Without 
Additional 
Training. 

1 

Total. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per       Num- 
Cent.    I   ber. 

1 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

12 
80 
14 
12 

57.1 
42.8 
24.6 
26.7 

8 
70 
17 
10 

38.1 
37.4 
29.8 
22.2 

1 
30 
17 
14 

4.8 
16.0 
29.8 
31.1 

21 

187 

57 

45 

100.0 

Stenographers 

Bookkeepers 

Clerks 

7 
9 
9 

3.8 
15.8 
20.0 

100.0 
100.0 
100.0 

Total 

118 

38.1 

105 

33.8 

62 

20.0 

25 

8.1 

310 

100.0 

1  Based  on  310  high  school  students  personally  visited. 


As  the  amount  of  schooling  affects  the  nature  of  the 
occupation,  so  the  occupation  explains  the  wage.  Sixty 
per  cent  of  the  clerks,  of  whom  one-half  were  either  high 
school  non-graduates  or  else  merely  grammar  school 
graduates,  received  less  than  the  $9  minimum  wage.^ 

*  For  further  discussion,  see  Chapter  IV. 

>  Miss  Bosworth,  in  The  Living  Wage  of  Women  Workers,  estimates  $9  to  $11  as  the 
minimum  living  wage  for  women  workers  in  Boston.  (Pages  9  and  11.)  Miss  Kelsey, 
Manager  of  the  Fifth  Avenue  .\gency,  New  York  City,  regards  "the  current  living  wage, 
(in  ofiBce  service  as)  about  S50  per  month  according  to  New  York  standards."  Vocations 
for  the  Trained  Woman,  Part  I,  page  208,  by  Department  of  Research,  Women's  Educa- 
tional and  Industrial  Union. 

Nine  dollars,  therefore,  may  be  too  small  a  minimum  for  girls  in  office  seri-ice,  whose 
standards  of  living  and  of  dress  must  be  high. 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS. 


37 


Nearly  one-half  (43.9  per  cent)  of  the  bookkeepers 
were  also  earning  less  than  S9,  and  almost  as  large  a 
proportion  of  the  bookkeepers  as  of  the  clerks  were  not 
high  school  graduates.  Among  stenographers  and 
typists,  however,  80.2  per  cent  of  whom  were  high 
school  graduates,  only  one-third  received  less  than  $9. 
(See  Table  9.) 

But  this  does  not  represent  all  the  schooling  which 
the  girls  may  have  had.  The  private  commercial 
schools  were  called  upon  to  supplement  the  training 


Table  9. —  Showing  Proportion  of  310  Former  High  School  Pupils 
Earning  less  than  $9  and  $9  and  over.^ 


Pupils  Earning  Specified  Present  Wage. 

Occupation. 

LESS  than  $9. 

$9  AND  LESS 
THAN  $12. 

$12  AND  OVER. 

j        Total. 

1 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Secretaries 

21 

57 

12 

8 

100.0 
30.5 
21.1 

17.8 

21 
187 
57 
45 

100  0 

Stenographers 

Bookkeepers 

Clerks 

63 
25 

27 

33.7 
43.9 
60.0 

67 
20 
10 

35.8 
35.0 
22.2 

100.0 
100.0 
100  0 

Total 

115 

37.1 

97 

31.3 

98 

31.6 

310 

100  0 

1  Based  on  personal  interviews. 

of  a  considerable  proportion  (28.7  per  cent)  of  the 
310  girls,  no  matter  what  their  public  schooling  had 
been,  for  more  than  one-fourth  (26.9  per  cent)  of  the 
223  high  school  graduates  ^  had  gone  to  business  college 
for  additional  training.  (See  Table  10.)  An  interest- 
ing question  as  to  the  advisability  of  shortening  the 
four  year  commercial  course  may  be  raised  since  34.9 
per  cent  of  the  girls  who  graduated  from  the  three  year 
course  took  additional  work  in  business  college  as  compared 
with  but  one-fourth  of  the  graduates  of  the  four  year 
course.  Naturally,  among  girls  who  have  left  high  school 
before  graduating  is  found  the  largest  proportion  who  need 

'  That  is,  tho  graduates  of  both  the  three  and  the  four  year  course;  60  of  the  223  gradu- 
ates went  to  business  college. 


38 


WOMEN   IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


further  training,  which  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that 
more  than  one-third  (35.5  per  cent)  of  this  group  had 
gone  to  business  college,  about  the  same  proportion 
as  among  the  graduates  of  the  three  year  course  which 
existed  previous  to  1908. 

Such  additional  training  has  an  evident  effect  on 
salaries  even  at  the  beginning  of  the  girl's  business 
experience.  More  than  two-fifths  (41.1  per  cent)  of 
all  the  girls  receiving  a  beginning  wage  of  $8  and  over 
had  had  additional  training  in  business  school,  whereas 

Table  10. —  Showing  Proportion  of  310  Public  School  Pupils  who 
have  gone  to  Business  College  for  Further  Training. 


Pupils  with  Specified  Training. 

Schooling. 

WITH    BUSINESS 
COLLBOE   TRAININO. 

WITHOUT  BUSINESS 
COLLEGE    TRAINING. 

Total. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

High  school   graduates, 
4-year  course. 

High  school  graduates, 
3-year  course. 

High  school  non-gradu- 
ates. 

No  high  school  training. . 

45 
15 

22 

7 

25.0 
34.9 
35.5 

28.0 

135 

28 
40 
18 

75.0 
65.1 
64.5 
72.0 

180 
43 
62 
25 

100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 

Total 

89 

28.7 

221 

71.3 

310 

100.0 

less  than  one-fifth  (18.2  per  cent)  of  those  starting  at 
less  than  $8  had  had  this  additional  preparation. 

The  close  relation  between  schooling,  including  both 
the  preliminary  and  the  intensive  technical  training,  and 
beginning  wage  is  most  significant.  More  than  one-half 
(51.1  per  cent)  of  those  graduating  from  a  four  year  course 
in  the  high  school  began  work  with  an  initial  wage  of  $8  or 
more.  Less  than  one-half  (46.5  per  cent)  of  the  graduates 
of  a  three  year  high  school  course,  less  than  one-fourth 
(24.2  per  cent)  of  those  who  did  not  graduate  and  less 
than  one-tenth  (8.0  per  cent)  who  had  no  high  school 
training    began    with    $8    or    more.     (See    Chart    II.) 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS. 


39 


Those  who  were  able  to  command  a  beginning  wage  of 
$8  or  more  had  to  supplement  their  equipment  with 
additional  technical  training  in  proportion  to  their 
preliminary  schooling.  Thus  only  one-third  (33.7  per 
cent)  of  the  graduates  of  a  four  year  high  school  course, 
one-half    (50    per   cent)   of   the  graduates  of    a  three 


Chart  II. —  Showing  Beginning  Wage  by  Schooling  of  310  Cases 
Secured  from  the  Schools. 
(The  section  below  the  black  dividing  line  signifies  a  wage  of  less  than 
S8.     The  section  above   signifies   a  wage  of   ..-S  or   more.     Additional 
training  is  shown  thus :  ;  Unclassified:  .■/:/.•.•.-.•.) 


1.1% 


51.1% 


47.8% 


100% 


46.5% 


53.5% 


4.8% 


24.2% 


50.0%, 


21.7% 


71.0% 


66.7' 


''8.0% 


66.7% 


22.7% 


92.0% 


100% 


21.7% 


High  School 

High-School 

High  School 

Non-High 

Graduate, 

Graduate, 

Non-Graduate. 

School. 

4-year  course. 

3-year  course. 

62 

25 

180 

43 

year  course,  two-thirds  (66.7  per  cent)  of  those  who 
did  not  graduate  and  all  who  did  not  attend  high 
school  at  all  had  additional  technical  training. 

If  parents  and  girls  recognize  the  fact  that  additional 
training  increases  the  wage,  it  may  account  somewhat 
for  the  large  proportion  of  girls  who  supplement  even 
a  four  year  high  school  course  by  additional  preparation 
in  the  private  business  schools.     However,  some  very 


40  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

pertinent  questions  may  be  raised  as  to  why  these  girls 
spend  money  and  time  for  further  equipment,  when  the 
schools  are  supposed  to  offer  adequate  instruction. 
Various  explanations  were  offered  by  the  parents  and 
pupils  interviewed.  Several  parents  prided  themselves 
on  being  able  to  afford  at  least  one  year  of  business 
college  training,  even  if  they  could  not  send  their  girls 
to  an  academic  college.  Others  have  thought  their 
daughters  too  young  to  go  to  work  immediately  on 
leaving  school  and  have  welcomed  an  additional  period 
of  training  to  afford  greater  maturity  and  more  prepara- 
tion before  allowing  the  girls  to  enter  the  business 
world.  The  most  important  factor  which  induces  high 
school  girls  to  complete  their  training  at  business  college, 
however,  is  the  emphasis  which  most  business  colleges 
lay  on  their  three  months'  "finishing  courses."  These 
courses  are  usually  aimed  to  provide  an  intensive 
technical  training  in  shorthand  as  well  as  a  broader 
course  either  in  business  English  and  commercial  forms, 
or  in  the  use  of  office  appliances.  The  ''oflflce  appliance" 
course,  especially,  provides  a  very  valuable  part  of  the 
girls'  equipment  by  affording  famiharity  with  most  of 
the  devices  which  are  used  in  either  small  or  large  offices 
to  facilitate  business  methods.  Special  emphasis  is 
also  laid  on  penmanship  in  these  courses,  and  many 
girls,  who  have  shown  little  improvement  in  the  pen- 
manship practice  in  high  school,  which  is  given  frequently 
in  connection  with  bookkeeping,  show  marked  improve- 
ment after  this  ''finishing  course."  But  the  value  of 
the  training  itself  is  only  one  inducement.  The  strongest 
influence  affecting  the  girls'  choice  undoubtedly  arises 
from  the  fact  that  graduation  from  such  a  course  gives 
them  the  privilege  of  life  membership  in  the  Situation 
Department.  Thus,  one  school  advertises  that  "Any 
partially  prepared  student  of  Any  System  of  Shorthand 
who  is  far  enough  advanced  to  enter  the  dictation  sections 
and  who  wishes  to  graduate  and  secure  the  advantages 
of  the  Situation  Department  can  do  so  by  attending 
the  school  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  fifteen  weeks, 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  41 

passing  the  required  tests,  and  doing  the  regular  work 
of  the  Office  Appliance  Department."  ^  Such  a  student 
is  given  full  credit  for  work  done  elsewhere  and  all  the 
advantages  of  securing  situations  from  the  school.  This 
aid  in  securing  employment  which  the  public  high 
schools  have  attempted  on  only  a  very  small  scale  is  a 
tremendous  advantage  to  young  girls  when  just  starting 
out,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  many  of  them  think 
that  the  privileges  of  the  Situation  Department,  together 
with  the  additional  training,  are  worth  the  extra  time 
and  money. 

The  practice  of  taking  additional  work  in  business 
colleges  is  by  no  means  to  be  discouraged  for  there  is 
every  evidence  that  the  broader  and  more  thorough 
the  education,  the  better  will  be  the  wage,  and  the 
intensive  technical  preparation,  added  to  the  four  year 
high  school  course,  has  an  obvious  financial  return. 
But  the  tendency  to  spend  this  extra  period  of  three 
months  or  a  school  year  in  acquiring  more  training  may 
well  be  taken  into  consideration  by  the  public  schools. 
The  elective  system,  by  which  a  girl  in  the  general  course 
may  acquire  a  smattering  of  such  commercial  subjects 
as  she  desires  to  elect,  might  properly  be  more  controlled 
to  the  advantage  of  both  the  girl  and  the  occupation. 
Many  a  girl  might  be  guided  into  taking  a  complete 
general  course  for  four  years,  followed  by  a  post-graduate 
course,  such  as  Dorchester  High  School  gives,  if  the 
concrete  advantages  were  made  apparent  to  her.  A 
four  year  course  of  general  work,  supplemented  by 
intensive  technical  training,  would  be  much  more 
effective  than  the  present  elective  arrangement,  under 
which  a  girl  often  weakens  her  general  course  by  sub- 
stituting for  her  regular  work  a  few  commercial  subjects 
which  then  have  to  be  supplemented  by  additional 
training  before  she  can  get  a  good  position. 

The  wide  range  in  the  number  of  commercial  points 
elected  by  high  school  students  is  shown  for  a  total  of 
740  graduates  who  elected  one  or  more  technical  com- 

'  Burdett  College,  Catalogue  and  View  Book,  page  16. 


42  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

mercial  subjects.  More  than  one-fifth  (22.8  per  cent) 
of  this  group  had  taken  less  than  12  points,  and  more 
than  one-fourth  (27.3  per  cent)  had  taken  from  12  to 
20  points  of  commercial  work.  Nearly  one-third  (31.7 
per  cent)  had  between  20  and  28,  and  nearly  one-fifth 
(18.2  per  cent)  between  28  and  36  points.  The  equip- 
ment of  these  girls  varied  greatly,  therefore,  both  as 
to  their  general  and  technical  training.  Would  it  not 
be  better  to  standardize  the  subjects  in  the  regular 
commercial  course,  and  as  far  as  possible  keep  the 
general  course  intact?  Then,  the  general  course  could 
be  supplemented  by  the  post-graduate  year  of  intensive 
commercial  work  which  would  provide  the  technical 
training.  The  year  of  post-graduate  work  may  also 
afford  the  necessary  maturity  which  is  a  requisite  for 
success,  while  the  actual  technical  training  may  be 
developed  along  lines  similar  to  that  of  the  business 
college. 

Many  girls,  however,  are  not  satisfied  with  their 
preliminary  high  school  or  business  college  training. 
After  they  get  a  position  they  continue  to  supplement 
their  training  in  the  evening  schools  as  well.  Some  of 
these  girls  are  in  positions  where  they  are  in  danger  of 
losing  their  speed  in  shorthand,  because  of  the  small 
amount  of  dictation  given,  so  take  the  ''speed  course" 
in  evening  school  to  keep  up  their  practice.  Other 
girls,  however,  come  for  general  practice,  not  from 
choice,  but  from  the  necessity  of  meeting  the  require- 
ments of  the  business  world.  Such  girls  may  find 
themselves  unable  to  meet  the  standard  of  their 
employers,  while  others  may  be  trying  to  increase  their 
wage  or  better  their  position,  by  greater  proficiency. 
Girls  also  come  for  other  reasons  than  greater  proficiency 
in  shorthand  and  typewriting.  Among  them  may  be 
found  the  stenographer  who,  finding  that  a  knowledge  of 
bookkeeping  will  increase  her  wage  and  her  value  to 
her  employer,  takes  a  course  in  evening  school.  Civil 
service  courses  also  attract  girls  who  wish  to  change  their 
positions  or  to  add  to  their  training  in  general  subjects. 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  43 

Additional  training  of  one  sort  or  another  appeals  to 
girls  of  all  degrees  of  schooling,  even  the  highest.  More 
than  one-half  (52.9  per  cent)  of  the  223  high  school 
graduates  studied  from  the  schools  had  gone  either  to 
business  college  or  to  evening  school  for  further  train- 
ing. The  additional  training  not  only  influences  the 
beginning  wage/  but  also  equips  the  girl  for  more 
rapid  advancement  during  the  next  few  years.  Three- 
fourths  (75.5  per  cent)  of  the  high  school  graduates 
with  additional  training  gained  either  in  business 
college  or  public  evening  high  school,  as  compared 
with  two-thirds  (68.6  per  cent)  without  and  one-third 
(33.9  per  cent)  who  did  not  graduate  from  high  school, 
were  earning  $9  or  more,  and  the  same  proportion, 
about  one-half,  of  each  group  had  had  a  working  expe- 
rience of  less  than  three  years.  (See  Table  11.)  The 
commercial  teachers,  therefore,  should  give  much 
encouragement  to  the  pupils  to  avail  themselves  of 
every  advantage  which  the  public  schools  offer.  The 
example  of  the  Dorchester  High  School  in  offering  post- 
graduate courses  either  for  supplementary  commercial 
work  or  for  an  intensive  course  for  those  "without 
preliminary  commercial  training  should  be  studied  and 
followed  wherever  practicable. 

Evening  commercial  high  schools  have  already  been 
mentioned  as  an  important  agency  in  commercial  edu- 
cation. Almost  as  large  a  number,  2,886,  was  enrolled  in 
the  commercial  courses  of  the  evening  schools  as  in  the 
day  schools  (3,699)  during  the  school  year  1912  to  1913. 
But  the  personnel  of  the  evening  school  is  very  different 
from  that  of  the  day  school.  The  day  school  might  be 
termed  purely  prevocational,  and  deals  with  a  compar- 
atively homogeneous  group.  The  evening  school  is  both 
a  prevocational  and  continuation  school,  for  here  are 
found  not  only  girls  who  work  in  offices  during  the  day 
and  who  wish  to  supplement  their  previous  training 
gained  in  the  day  high  schools  and  business  colleges,  but 
also  girls  who  work  in  factories,  stores  and  in  domestic 

»  See  Chart  H,  page  39. 


44 


WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 


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THE   PUBLIC  SCHOOL  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS. 


45 


service,  who  have  had  little  or  no  high  school  training 
and  are  struggUng  with  the  elementary  principles  of 
commercial  subjects.  Finally,  there  are  some  who  are 
at  home  during  the  day  and  come  to  the  evening  school 
for  further  education  or  companionship  with  other  girls. 


Chart  MI. —  Showing  Present  Wage  by  Schooling  and  Length 
of  Experience  of  310  Cases  Secured  from  the  Schools.  Based 
on  Table  II,  Page  44. 

(The  section  below  the  black  dividing  line  Bignifiee  a  wage  of  less  than 
$9.  The  section  above  signifies  a  wage  of  $9  or  more.  Three  years' 
experience  or  more  is  shown  thus  .) 


7S.S% 


24.5% 


68.6% 


4J.8% 


10.4% 


31.4% 


47.6^ 


52.0^ 


48.0% 


63.8% 


8.3% 


High  School  Graduate 

with 

Additional  Training. 

118 


High  School  Graduate 

with  no 

Additional  Training. 

105 


High  School 

Non-Graduate. 

62 


Non-High  School. 
25 


The  evening  high  schools,  therefore,  must  meet  the 
needs  of  a  group  of  girls  with  widely  differing  social, 
economic  and  educational  background,  and  with  varying 
degrees  of  maturity  and  of  capacity  to  profit  by  the 
instruction  given. 

The  courses  given  in  these  evening  commercial  high 
schools  are  arranged  in  a  four  year  plan,  and  are  aimed 


4G  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 

to  fit  the  pupils  to  become  either  bookkeepers,  stenog- 
raphers or  saleswomen,  in  the  commercial  vocations, 
or  nurses  and  telephone  operators,  as  the  other  possible 
vocations.  The  curriculum  provides  two  one-hour 
courses  for  three  nights  a  week  for  four  years,  but  in 
case  advanced  standing  can  be  secured  in  any  of  the  pre- 
scribed subjects  in  the  course  elected,  the  time  for  com- 
pleting the  course  may  be  shortened.  No  pupils  may 
exclude  English  from  their  list  of  subjects,  unless  they 
can  show  proficiency  in  it.  Also  no  pupils  may  select 
phonography  or  typewriting  who  have  not  had  the 
equivalent  of  the  advanced  English  composition  course, 
except  in  the  case  of  those  whose  experience  and  maturity 
insure  their  ability  to  pursue  the  course  successfully. 
"Although  pupils  are  admitted  to  any  courses  .  .  . 
which,  in  the  discretion  of  the  principal  they  are  able 
to  pursue  with  profit,  they  are  urged  to  select  such  a 
grouping  of  subjects  as  will  prepare  them  for  the  particu- 
lar vocation  which  they  wish  to  enter  and  to  secure 
therefor  a  diploma  of  graduation."  ^ 

While  the  evening  school  thus  aims  primarily  to  offer 
a  complete  course  of  training  for  pupils  who  have  not 
attended  or  finished  the  day  high  school,  it  also  offers 
a  "continuation"  training  for  pupils  who  may  care  to 
select  only  special  subjects.  In  such  special  classes 
are  found  many  girls  who  have  left  school  after  one  or 
two  years  in  high  school  and  who  are  in  the  lower  grade 
of  office  service.  This  opportunity  for  special  extra 
training  may  make  possible  advancement  which  other- 
wise would  not  have  been  secured  on  account  of  their 
inadequate  preliminary  equipment.  With  a  class  of 
pupils,  therefore,  which  range  from  little  foreign-born 
factory  girls  to  much  older  women,  with  several  years  of 
experience  in  office  service,  the  school  meets  a  situation 
which,  even  more  than  in  the  day  school,  calls  for  serious 
consideration.  An  intimate  acquaintance  with  indi- 
vidual students  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  subjects 

>  Circular  of  Iriformation  relating  to  Evening  and  Continuation  SchooU,  1912,  page  28. 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   AND   ITS   PROBLEMS. 


47 


taught  and  the  methods  of  teaching  may  be  best 
correlated  with  their  varying  social,  economic  and 
educational  background. 

Something  of  this  varying  background  was  learned 
from  a  canvass  of  five  schools/  where  861  girls,  or  nearly 
one-half  of  the  "average  number  (of  girls)  belonging"  ^ 
in  all  the  Boston  evening  commercial  high  schools  in 
1913  to  1914,  furnished  information  on  their  personal 
history,  schooling,  and  business  experience.  Practically 
all  (89.4  per  cent)  of  the  girls  studied  were  at  work,  or 

Table  12. —  Showing  Age  of  Girls  Enrolled  in  Evening  Commercial 
High  Schools  in  1913  to  1914.^ 


Age. 


Pupils  in  Each  Group  by  Specified  Aqb. 


ALL    SCHOOLS. 


Number.      Per  Cent 


GROUP    studied. 


Number.      Per  Cent. 


Under  16  years 

16  years  and  under  18 
18  years  and  under  20 
20  years  and  over .  .  .  . 

Total 


566 
877 
542 
709 


21.1 
32.5 
20.1 
26.3 


155 
318 
205 
183 


18.0 
37.0 
23.8 
21.2 


2,694  2 


100.0 


861 


100.0 


'  Secured  from  school  records  and  from  a  canvass  of  five  high  schools. 
2  192  not  reported  by  age. 

had  been  at  work,^  either  in  office  service,  manufacturing, 
mercantile  or  personal  service.  More  than  one-half 
(56.9  per  cent)  of  the  girls  had  gone  to  work  under 
sixteen  years  of  age,  and  about  an  equal  proportion  had 
been  at  work  not  more  than  one  year.  It  is  not  sur- 
prising, therefore,  to  find  that  more  than  one-half  of 
the  861  girls  studied,  and  a  similar  proportion  of  the 
total  number  of  girls  enrolled  in  evening  schools  were 
under  eighteen  years  of   age.     (See  Table  12.)     Thus 

'  See  Chapter  I,  page  18  et  seq. 

'The  school  reports  on  the  "average  number  belonging"  are  secured  by  adding  the 
number  belonging  at  the  end  of  each  month  and  dividing  the  total  by  the  number  of 
months. 

*  5.3  per  cent  idle  at  the  time  had  previously  worked. 


48 


WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


it  is  apparent  that  the  young  girl  who  has  left  high 
school  at  the  age  of  sixteen  soon  realizes  that  her  equip- 
ment of  one  or  two  years  in  high  school  is  inadequate. 

The  fact  that  more  than  one-half  of  these  girls  went 
to  work  before  they  were  sixteen  years  of  age  accounts 
for  a  similar  proportion  (51.6  per  cent)  who  had  not 
gone  beyond  the  grammar  school.  More  than  one- 
third  (37  per  cent)  had  left  before  finishing  their  high 
school  course  and  but  slightly  more  than  one-tenth 
(11.1  per  cent)  were  high  school  graduates.  (See  Table 
13.) 

Economic  pressure  may  explain  to  some  extent  this 
large  proportion  of  girls  who  have  not  availed  them- 


Table  13. —  Showing  Previous  Day  School  Training  of  861  Girls  in 
Evening  High  Schools. 


Pupils  with  Specified 
Day  School  Tkalning. 


Schooling. 


High  school  graduates .... 
High  school  non-graduates 
No  high  school  training.  .  . 
Unclassified 

Total 


100.0 


selves  of  a  more  extended  day  school  education,  for  the 
fathers  of  almost  two-thirds  (62.9  per  cent)  were  engaged 
in  manual  work.  Economic  pressure  may  also  result 
from  the  fact  that  more  than  two-thirds  (69.8  per  cent) 
of  the  861  girls  studied  were  of  foreign-born  parentage. 
IVIore  than  one-half  (52.6  per  cent)  of  these  girls  of 
foreign  parentage  went  to  work  before  the  age  of  sixteen 
as  compared  with  about  two-fifths  (42.1  per  cent)  of 
the  children  of  native-born  parents.  Foreign-born  par- 
ents from  non-English  speaking  countries  are  doubtless 
under  a  greater  disadvantage  than  those  whose  native 
language  is  English;  56.7  per  cent  of  the  children  of  the 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  49 

former  and  50.1  per  cent  of  the  children  of  the  latter 
went  to  work  before  the  age  of  sixteen. 

The  personnel  of  the  evening  school  is  so  varied  as  to 
home  and  business  environment,  age,  education  and 
length  of  working  experience  that  the  problem  of  the 
evening  school  in  meeting  the  needs  of  this  heterogeneous 
group  is  both  difficult  and  unique.  The  home  environ- 
ment of  the  large  number  of  girls  with  foreign-born  parents 
(69.8  per  cent),  as  well  as  of  nearly  one-fifth  who  were 
themselves  foreign-born,  may  not  provide  the  general 
background  and  familiarity  with  our  language  and  cus- 
toms which  is  an  essential  for  success  in  business  rela- 
tions. One  of  the  school  problems,  therefore,  is  to 
familiarize  these  girls  with  our  local  customs  and  general 
business  methods,  as  well  as  to  increase  their  proficiency 
in  the  English  language.  The  variations  of  age  and 
education  which  are  represented  complicate  still  further 
the  problems  confronting  the  school.  While  one-half 
of  the  group  studied  was  under  eighteen  years  of  age, 
the  remaining  half  ranged  from  eighteen  to  forty-five 
years.  Again,  while  one-half  had  but  a  grammar 
school  background,  the  other  half  consisted  of  girls 
whose  previous  schooling  ranged  from  one  year  at  high 
school  to  four  years  at  college. 

Besides  these  factors  of  varying  home  background, 
age  and  education,  the  schools  must  also  take  into  con- 
sideration the  fact  that  more  than  four-fifths  (84.1  per 
cent)  of  their  girls  are  engaged  during  the  day  in  occu- 
pations which  vary  in  the  degree  of  fatigue,  as  well  as 
in  correlation  with  the  subjects  studied  at  night. 

Office  service,  which  is  most  directly  related  to  the 
training  offered,  and  in  which  the  girls  feel  the  need  of 
the  broadest  education  possible,  occupied  the  largest 
proportion  (40.5  per  cent)  of  the  861  girls  studied  in  the 
evening  high  schools.  Manufacturing,  which  demands 
much  less  education  and  offers  httle  correlation  with  the 
commercial  course,  nevertheless,  contributed  more  than 
one-fourth  (26.7  per  cent)  of  the  group  studied.  It 
would  seem,  therefore,  that  these  girls  were  not  trying  to 


50 


WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 


fit  themselves  better  for  their  present  occupation  as  is 
true  of  those  in  office  service,  but  were  trying  to  Hft  them- 
selves out  of  an  occupation  which  has  little  future. 
Rather  surprising  is  the  small  proportion  (12  per  cent) 
from  mercantile  establishments  as  well  as  the  large 
proportion  (15.9  per  cent)  who  were  "staying  at  home," 
though  one-third  of  the  latter  had  worked  previously. 
(See  Table  14.) 

The  element  of  fatigue  is  an  important  condition  which 
confronts  the  evening  school,  as  almost  one-half  (43.2 
per  cent)  the  girls  had  a  working  day  of  eight  to  eight  and 

Table   14. —  Showing  Occupation  of  861   Girls  in  Boston  Evening 
Commercial  High  Schools.^ 


Occupation. 


Pupils  in  Specified 
Occupation. 


OflSce  Service 

Manufacturing  Processes 

Mercantile  Service 

Domestic  and  Personal  Service 

At  home 

Miscellaneous 

Total 


100.0 


•  Secured  by  a  canvass  of  five  high  schools. 


a  half  hours,  and  almost  three-fifths  from  eight  to  nine 
hours.  Almost  one-fifth  (17.4  per  cent)  had  an  even 
longer  working  day.  A  little  more  than  one-half 
(50.7  per  cent)  left  work  between  5.30  to  6  p.  m.,  but 
12.6  per  cent  had  to  work  until  or  after  6  o'clock  and  be 
at  their  desks  in  the  evening  by  7.30  p.  m. 

The  length  of  the  working  day  varies  so  much  with 
the  particular  occupation  that  the  three  largest  groups 
are  worthy  of  closer  study.  The  greater  strain  and 
fatigue  of  the  manufacturing  processes  are  intensified 
by  the  longer  working  day,  for  54.3  per  cent  of  the  girls 
in  factories  worked  from  eight  to  nine  hours  and  39.6 


THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOL  AND  ITS  PROBLEMS. 


51 


per  cent  worked  nine  hours  and  over.  Almost  four- 
fifths  (78.6  per  cent)  of  the  girls  in  mercantile  establish- 
ments worked  from  eight  to  eight  and  a  half  hours. 
In  office  service  three-fourths  (75.6  per  cent)  of  the 
girls  worked  less  than  eight  and  a  half  hours,  and  one- 
third  (33.5  per  cent)  worked  even  less  than  eight  hours 
a  day.     (See  Table  15.) 

Office  service  not  only  has  better  working  conditions, 
but  its  workers  represent  a  higher  social,  economic  and 
educational  status.     Less  than  one-half  (43.8  per  cent) 


Table  15. —  Showing  Length  of  Working  Day  of  682  Qirls  in  Three 
Selected  Occupations  Attending  Evening  High  School. 


Daily  Hours. 


Girls  in  Each  Occupation  Workinq 
Specified  Number  op  Hours. 


OFFICE 
SERVICE. 


PL. 


MANUFAC- 
TURING 
PROCESSES. 


MERCAN- 
TILE 
SERVICE. 


Total. 


Less  than  8  hours 

8  hours  and  less  than  8  J 
8}  hours  and  less  than  9 

9  hours  and  over 

Unclassified 

Total 


117 

147 

48 

22 

15 


33.5 

42.1 

13.8 

6.3 

4.3 


4.8 
33.9 
20.4 
39.6 

1.3 


5.8 
78.6 
9.7 
3.9 
2.0 


134 
306 
105 
117 
20 


19.6 
44.9 
15.4 
17.2 
2.9 


349 


100.0 


230 


100.0 


103 


100.0 


682 


100.0 


of  the  girls  in  office  service,  for  instance,  went  to  work 
under  sixteen  years  of  age,  as  contrasted  with  almost 
three-fourths  (70.9  per  cent)  of  those  in  manufacturing 
and  (74.8  per  cent)  in  mercantile  establishments.  But 
this  large  proportion  of  girls  (43.8  per  cent)  beginning 
work  in  office  service  before  the  age  of  sixteen,  which  is 
discovered  in  the  evening  commercial  high  schools,  must 
not  be  taken  as  representative  of  the  occupation  as  a 
whole.  Few  of  the  girls  in  the  evening  schools  are 
technically  trained  workers,  such  as  stenographers  and 
typists,   but  many  are  clerks  and   office  girls,   whose 


52 


WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


training  is  sometimes  very  meager.  Thus,  only  one- 
fourth  (25.5  per  cent)  of  the  349  office  workers  found 
in  the  evening  schools  were  stenographers  and  typists 
while  nearly  one-half  (44.4  per  cent)  were  clerks,  and 
nearly  one-fifth  (19.7  per  cent)  were  bookkeepers  and 
cashiers.     (See  Table  16.) 

The  large  proportion  of  clerks  attending  evening 
school  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  more  than  one-half 
(55.7  per  cent)  of  the  pupils  engaged  in  office  service, 
who  had  attended  day  high  school,  had  not  gone  beyond 
the   second  year,   and  so  had  picked  up   merely   the 


Table  16. —  Showing  the  Occupations  of  Qirls  in  Office  Service  in 
Five  Boston  Evening  High  Schools. 


Occupations. 

Office  Workers  in- 
Specified  OCCDPATION. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

Clerks 

155 
69 
89 
23 
3 
10 

44.4 

19.7 

Stenographers  and  typists 

25.5 

Cashiers  in  department  stores 

Secretaries 

6.6 
0.8 

3.0 

Total 

349 

100  0 

rudiments  of  the  commercial  course.  (See  Table  17.) 
With  this  meager  equipment  they  had  necessarily 
entered  and  been  limited  to  the  lower  grades  of  office 
service.  As  they  soon  discovered  how  ill-prepared  they 
were  even  for  this  lower  grade  of  work,  they  came  back 
to  the  evening  school  three  nights  a  week  for  further 
schooling.  About  one-third  who  had  left  after  the  first 
or  second  year  at  high  school  had  had  further  training 
in  business  college  or  evening  school  previous  to  this 
present  year,  showing  that  the  girls  themselves  have 
realized  that  they  were  inadequately  equipped  and 
needed  additional  training  to  make  up  their  deficiencies. 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   AND   ITS   PROBLEMS. 


53 


Almost  two-thirds  (62.1  per  cent)  of  the  675  clerks 
studied  in  offices  also  had  had  less  than  a  high  school 
education  or  its  equivalent,  ^  showing  that  this  is  the 
natural  opening  for  the  majority  of  girls  who  enter 
office  service  before  finishing  their  high  school  course. 
The  new  plan  for  a  clerical  high  school  seems  admirably 
adapted  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  large  number  of  girls 
who  cannot  spend  the  full  four  years  in  high  school. 

Table  17. —  Showing  Previous  High  School  and  Additional  Training 
of  237  Evening  High  School  Girls  in  Office  Service.^ 


Pdpils  with  and  without  Additional  Train- 
ing BY  Specified  Years  in  High  School. 

GRi 

Tot 

Preliminary  High 

WITHOUT 

additional 
training. 

WITH   ADDITIONAL 
TRAINING. 

lND 
AL. 

School  Training. 

a) 

a 

a 
O 

PL, 

XI 

a 

o 

Cl, 

NUMBER 

to   . 

a  a  2 

K  6 

a. 9.2 

PQ 

o 
X> 

a 

3 

a 

6 

o 

1  year 

2  years 

42 
39 
19 

2 
47 

2 

27.8 
25.8 
12.7 

1.3 
31.1 

1.3 

27 

24 

3 

1 

28 

3 

31.4 

27.9 

3.5 

1.1 

32.6 

3.5 

12 

10 

2 

15 

1 

10 
12 

1 

1 

12 

2 

5 
1 

69 
63 
22 

3 
75 

5 

29.1 

26.6 

9  3 

1  3 

31.6 

Unclassified 

2.1 

Total 

151 

100.0 

86 

100.0 

40 

38 

8 

237 

100.0 

'  112  girls  in  office  service  did  not  go  to  daj*  high  school. 

There  are  good  openings  for  the  well-trained  clerk,  as 
well  as  for  the  stenographer,  for  which  the  school  might 
provide  special  training.  Thus,  more  than  one-half 
(55.8  per  cent)  of  the  clerks  studied  in  offices  who  were 
earning  $15  and  over  were  those  girls  who  had  had  a 
full  high  school  course.  More  than  one-third  (37.2  per 
cent)  of  the  clerks  who  were  high  school  graduates 
were  earning  $12  or  more,  as  compared  with  24  per  cent 
of  all  the  clerks.     (See  Table  28.) 

'  -Vdditional  training  in  bu.siness  school  seems  to  give  the  high  school  non-graduate  an 
equipment  which  is  equivalent  to  that  of  the  high  school  graduate,  at  least  in  so  far  ai  it 
helps  her  to  reach  $12.     (See  Chapter  IV,  page  128.) 


54 


WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 


Although  the  previous  schooling  of  the  office  workers 
attending  evening  schools  is  lower  than  that  of  the 
workers  in  office  service  as  a  whole,  it  is  greater  than 
that  of  the  girls  in  the  other  occupations.  A  little  less 
than  one-third  (32.1  per  cent)  of  the  girls  in  office  service, 


Table  18. —  ShoXving  Previous  Education,  with  and  without  Additional 
Training,  of  682  Girls  in  Evening  High  Schools. 


Pupils  with  Specified  Schoolino. 

Grand 

GRAMMAR    SCHOOL. 

HIGH    SCHOOL. 

Total. 

Occupations. 

1 

3 

its 

h 

o 

3 
1 

o 

•a 

1 
d 

TOTAL. 

1 

la 

3 
1 

3 

o 

•53 

s 

a 

TOTAL. 

c 

(0 

B 

3 

2 

(U 

a 
o 
O 

a 

6 

c 
U 

11 

96 

5 

112 

32.1 

157 

75 

5 

237 

67.9 

349 

100.0 

With  additional  training .  . 

Without  additional  train- 
ing. 

5 
6 

30 

66 

3 

2 

38 

74 

30.7 
32.9 

55 
102 

28 
47 

3 
2 

86 
151 

69.3 
67.1 

124 
225 

35.5 
64.5 

Manufacturing  Processes . .  . 

26 

123 

14 

163 

70.9 

63 

3 

1 

67 

29.1 

230 

100.0 

With  additional  training. . 

Without  additional  train- 
ing. 

8 
18 

23 

100 

9 
5 

40 
123 

65.6 

72.8 

20 
43 

3 

1 

21 
46 

34.4 
27.2 

61 
169 

26 . 5 
73.5 

5 

65 

2 

72 

69.9 

29 

2 

31 

30.1 

103 

100.0 

2 
3 

14 
51 

2 

16 
56 

69.6 
70.0 

7 
22 

7 
24 

30.4 
30.0 

23 

80 

22.3 

Without  additional  train- 
ing. 

2 

77.7 

42 

284 

21 

347 

50.9 

249 

80 

6 

335 

49.1 

682 

100.0 

as  compared  with  more  than  two-thirds  in  manufacturing 
(70.9  per  cent),  and  in  mercantile  service  (69.9  per  cent) 
had  been  through  grammar  school  only.  Again,  more 
than  one-third  (35.5  per  cent)  of  the  office  workers  had 
had  additional  training,^  while  a  little  more  than  one- 
fourth  (26.5  per  cent)  of  those  in  manufacturing  processes 

'  "Additional  training"  mean.')  courses  in  business  college,  attendance  in  evening  school 
previous  to  the  year  of  the  investigation  or  both. 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  55 

and  even  less  than  one-fourth  (22.3  per  cent)  in  mer- 
cantile service  had  sought  further  schooling.  (See 
Table  18.) 

As  only  one-fifth  (21.5  per  cent)  of  the  evening 
school  girls  in  office  service  had  graduated  from  high 
school,  and  one-third  had  not  gone  even  beyond  grammar 
school,  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  a  low  standard  of 
wages. ^  Almost  one-half  (46.7  per  cent)  of  these  girls 
in  office  service  were  earning  less  than  $8  as  compared 
with  only  18.1  per  cent  of  the  310  day  school  pupils. 
As  this  low  wage  of  the  evening  school  girls  is  undoubt- 
edly due  to  lack  of  equipment  and  educational  back- 
ground, the  reason  for  their  attendance  at  evening 
schools  is  apparent.  Girls  in  office  service,  however, 
have  a  better  wage  than  those  in  manufacturing  or  mer- 
cantile establishments,  for  63.9  per  cent  of  the  manu- 
facturing group  and  72.8  per  cent  of  those  in  mercantile 
establishments  were  earning  less  than  $8. 

While  girls  of  all  degrees  of  education  and  business 
experience  take  advantage  of  these  opportunities  in  the 
evening  schools,  a  still  larger  group  of  pupils  will  be 
attracted  by  a  new  scheme  which  will  go  into  effect 
next  year  (1915). ^  ''Consideration  is  now  being  given 
to  shorter  courses  which  shall  meet  the  special  educational 
needs  and  wishes  of  clerical  and  commercial  employees. 
.  .  .  Many  employees,"  writes  the  Director  of  Evening 
Schools,  "realize  their  inability  to  do  efficiently  some 
portion  of  their  work,  and  appreciate  their  lack  of 
knowledge  in  some  branch  of  the  business  in  which  they 
are  engaged  .  .  .  (which  could)  be  acquired  very  quickly 
if  the  opportunity  were  offered.  A  few  weeks  of  inten- 
sive work  spent  entirely  upon  the  information  desired 
would  relieve  the  embarrassment  often  experienced  by 
a  worker  who  is  uncertain.  This  would  increase 
efficiency  and  open  up  possibiUties  of  promotion." 
These  unit  courses,  which  would  consist  of  from  9  to  15 

>  Seventy-five  of  the  349  pupils  in  ofBce  service  wore  high  school  gniduates. 
'  Circular  to  the  employers  of  former  and  prospective  pupils  of  the  public  evening  high 
schools,  from  the  Director  of  Evening  and  Continuation  Schools.  April,  1914. 


5t)  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

two-hour  lessons,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the 
work,  inchide  as  a  tentative  Ust  courses  with  special 
emphasis  on  various  divisions  under  commercial  law, 
bookkeeping,  merchandise,  chemistrj''  and  advertising, 
as  well  as  special  work  in  phonography  and  in  the  use 
of  office  appliances.  Thus,  a  person  desiring  to  learn 
something  of  the  laws  relating  to  corporations  or  con- 
tracts could  take  twelve  lessons  on  that  subject.  Or, 
one  who  needs  to  find  out  something  of  the  distin- 
guishing qualities  or  determining  values  in  cotton  goods, 
woolens,  or  leather,  may  elect  a  course  of  fifteen  lessons 
in  one  of  these  divisions. 

"To  this  list  (of  possible  courses)  might  be  added 
almost  any  number  of  other  courses,  each  one  intended 
to  meet  some  special  need  in  the  most  direct  way  and  in 
the  shortest  possible  time."  Employers,  therefore,  are 
asked  to  urge  their  employees  to  ''advise  the  director  of 
the  schools  concerning  the  instruction  which,  if  offered, 
would  increase  their  efficiency.  There  should  be  no 
hesitancy  in  naming  unusual  types  of  instruction  which 
previously  have  not  been  given  in  schools." 

The  evening  high  schools  are  regarded  by  many  girls 
who  have  been  forced  to  go  to  work  at  an  early  age  as 
their  only  means  of  securing  further  commercial  educa- 
tion. These  schools,  therefore,  have  the  responsibility 
of  supplementing  the  previous  education  of  such  girls 
and,  also,  of  guiding  them  into  and  equipping  them  for 
the  work  for  which  they  are  best  fitted.  The  problem 
of  meeting  this  responsibility  may  be  solved  through 
this  plan  for  special  instruction  which  has  just  been 
described,  for  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  personnel 
of  the  schools  will  be  required  in  order  to  fit  these  special 
courses  to  the  pupils'  needs.  The  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  the  individual  girls  will  provide  the  oppor- 
tunity for  vocational  guidance,  the  great  need  for  which 
the  Director  of  Evening  Schools^  has  already  recognized, 
as  is  shown  by  his  report. 

•  Extract  from  the  report  of  Mr.  W.  Stanwood  Field  in  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Super- 
intendent of  the  Boston  Public  Schools,  1913,  page  105. 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   AND    ITS   PROBLEMS.  57 

''It  is  probable  that  no  class  of  young  people  stand  in 
greater  need  of  counsel  and  guidance  than  those  in  the 
evening  schools.  Only  a  small  number  of  them  look 
far  enough  ahead  to  see  the  need  of  a  longer  time  spent 
in  preparation  for  a  high  grade  of  efficiency.  Many  of 
these  young  people  are  in  occupations  that  lead  nowhere. 
They  should  choose  a  skilled  occupation  and  begin  to 
prepare  for  it.  Those  who  do  this  should  be  given 
counsel  and  assistance  in  securing  employment.  Em- 
ployers' attention  should  be  called  to  students  of  worth 
and  ambition,  and  consideration  for  employment  and 
promotion  should  be  given  to  them.  To  this  end  the 
Director  of  Evening  Schools  strongly  recommends  the 
employment  of  a  highly  competent  vocational  assistant 
for  the  evening  schools." 

The  large  enrollment  and  the  general  atmosphere  of 
interest  in  the  evening  classes  show  that  the  schools 
are  already  doing  much  to  win  the  gratitude  and  meet 
the  needs  of  these  girls.  But  employers,  as  Mr.  Field 
suggests,  should  aid  this  good  work  and  show  their 
appreciation  by  giving  preference  to  and  advancing  the 
girls  who  have  received  certificates  on  completion  of 
these  courses.  The  Chambers  of  Commerce  in  various 
cities  abroad  and  in  this  country  have  already  pledged 
themselves  to  co-operate  with  both  the  day  and  evening 
schools  by  giving  advice  and  suggestions  about  the  cur- 
riculum and  by  giving  preference  to  the  graduates, 
which  will  greatly  aid  and  encourage  the  schools  in 
continuing  and  broadening  their  work. 

Since  commercial  education  is  a  distinct  form  of 
vocational  education  it  should,  as  Mr.  Snedden  says, 
be  organized  towards  a  preconceived  end  of  efficiency 
in  useful  employment.^  To  accomplish  this  end,  how- 
ever, commercial  education,  like  all  "Vocational  educa- 
tion, requires  the  evolution  of  means  and  methods 
peculiar  to  itself,  and,  to  a  degree  at  least,  quite  dis- 
similar to  those  found  in   general  education."  ^     Com- 

'  Snetldcn.  David.     Problems  of  Educational  Readjustment,  Chapter  IX,  page  211. 
*Ibid.,  Chapter  VIII.  pago  185. 


58  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

mercial  educators  have  been  handicapped  in  working 
out  such  methods  by  the  failure  of  academic  minds  to 
conceive  commercial  education  in  its  beginning  as  a 
form  by  itself,  and  not  as  a  mere  infusion  to  undermine 
the  general  or  academic  course.  The  grudging  intro- 
duction of  a  commercial  subject  here  and  there,  which 
may  be  traced  through  school  records  from  the  middle 
nineties,  is  sufficient  indication  of  the  handicap  com- 
mercial educators  have  had  from  the  start. 

With  the  growing  interest  in  industrial  training, 
which  profits  by  more  recent  and  far-seeing  educational 
methods,  commercial  educators  are  forced  to  "take 
account  of  stock."  They  may  well  consider,  therefore, 
what  they  may  learn  from  industrial  education  and  try 
to  profit  by  this  general  interest  in  vocational  training, 
which  should  have  been  aroused  in  commercial  education 
fifteen  or  twenty  years  ago. 

The  first  lesson  industrial  education  gives  to  com- 
mercial education  is  that  to  attain  "efficiency  in  useful 
employment"  all  vocational  education  must  consider 
the  requirements  of  the  employer,  as  well  as  the  needs 
of  the  employee.  In  the  case  of  office  service,  the  most 
important  demands  of  the  employer  are  technique  and 
personality  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  schools  to  train 
their  pupils  to  meet  both  requirements.  Personality  is 
fundamental,  as  it  is  the  first  test  to  which  a  girl  is 
put  when  she  enters  an  office  to  apply  for  a  position. 
A  pupil,  therefore,  who  is  physically  handicapped  or 
lacks  the  intellectual  capacity  necessary  to  meet  the 
demands  of  the  occupation,  should  be  discouraged  from 
spending  her  time  in  preparing  for  office  service.  Thus, 
vocational  direction  is  the  first  step  toward  efficient 
commercial  education.  Having  secured,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  right  personnel,  the  methods  of  training  these 
pupils  must  be  so  organized  as  to  acquaint  them  with 
actual  business  conditions.  A  scheme  providing  for 
part  time  in  school  and  part  time  in  offices  may  perhaps 
furnish  the  best  method.  Such  a  scheme  will  correlate 
the  technique  with  general  subjects,  just  as  phonography 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  59 

is  used  only  as  a  tool  in  connection  with  the  stenog- 
rapher's general  information  and  also  will  help  develop 
a  girl's  business  personality  and  enable  her  to  know 
better  how  to  act  in  all  contingencies. 

Vocational  guidance  and  part-time  schoohng,  there- 
fore, are  two  important  aids  to  the  efficiency  of  com- 
mercial education,  the  one  dealing  primarily  with  per- 
sonaUty,  the  other  with  technique  and  applied  theory. 
The  preliminary  step  in  vocational  direction,  that  is,  the 
selection  of  the  course  of  study  for  the  girl  first  entering 
the  high  school,  should  be  taken  in  co-operation  with 
the  teachers  of  the  grammar  schools,  who  through  daily 
personal  contact  with  the  girl  in  various  subjects,  know 
not  only  the  girl's  mental  calibre,  but  something  of  her 
personality  as  well.  But  not  only  may  the  high  school 
teacher  learn  from  the  teachers  of  the  grammar  school, 
but  so,  also,  must  the  latter  know  and  keep  in  close 
contact  with  the  opportunities  for  training  offered  in 
the  high  school.  A  preliminary  attempt  has  been  made 
to  form  a  connecting  link  between  the  grammar  school 
teachers  and  the  high  school  vocational  counselors. 
Personal  data  concerning  the  pupils'  work  and  charac- 
teristics, similar  to  that  given  to  the  placement  bureau 
agents,  has  been  sent  to  the  high  schools  for  the  pupils 
who  are  to  enter,  but  high  school  teachers  seem  to  have 
had  little  time  or  opportunity  to  make  use  of  this  mate- 
rial. The  pupil's  choice  has  usually  been  made  before 
entering  school  in  the  fall,  and  in  this  choice  the  grammar 
school  teachers  might  well  take  an  inteUigent  part. 

Vocational  guidance  should  imply  not  only  helping 
the  girl  to  choose  her  vocation,  but  also  planning  and 
directing  her  studies  so  as  best  to  develop  her  technique 
and  general  background.  Vocational  counselors  may 
give  intelligent  direction  only  if  they  know  something 
of  the  girl's  environment,  which  determines  to  a  certain 
extent  her  choice  of  a  vocation  and  also  affects  her  suc- 
cess in  proportion  to  its  limitations.  If  the  schools  are 
to  overcome  the  effects  of  environment  by  the  develop- 
ment of  a  broad  educational  background,  they  must 


60  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 

know  something  of  their  neighborhood,  their  pupils 
and  their  home  conditions.  The  neighborhood  of  the 
school,  as  a  whole,  should  determine  the  emphasis  on 
certain  branches.  For  instance,  in  a  school  which  draws 
from  a  neighborhood  where  there  are  many  foreign- 
born  families,  every  effort  should  be  made  to  bring  the 
customs  and  business  methods  of  the  new  country 
before  the  pupils.  Commercial  laboratories,  for  which 
the  pupils  assist  in  collecting  and  arranging  the  speci- 
mens of  American  products,  have  been  used  successfully 
in  several  schools  as  a  means  of  stimulating  interest. 
The  father's  occupation  also  throw^s  light  on  the  type 
of  supplementary  instruction  which  would  meet  the 
girl's  personal  needs  and  might  also  serve  as  a  corner- 
stone for  the  study  and  development  of  interest  in 
industrial  and  economic  problems. 

Not  only  must  the  schools  acquire  familiarity  with 
the  individual's  needs,  but  they  must  also  study  the 
requirements  of  the  business  world.  In  the  specific 
training  in  stenography  and  typewriting,  which  has  been 
chiefly  emphasized,  the  schools  seem  to  be  satisfactory; 
but  the  constantly  changing  conditions  caused  by  the 
introduction  of  new  office  appliances  must  be  carefully 
followed  by  organizers  of  the  school  curriculum.  More- 
over, the  introduction  of  training  for  the  various  kinds 
of  new  machines  in  the  school  curriculum  presents  a 
two-fold  problem.  First,  to  what  extent  will  these 
machines  reduce  the  number  which  ought  to  be  trained? 
Second,  should  the  schools  attempt  to  train  prospective 
workers  in  the  use  of  these  machines?  There  are  certain 
labor-saving  devices,  such  as  the  multigraph,  addresso- 
graph  and  neostyle,  which  are  used  in  the  larger  offices 
in  connection  with  regular  office  work,  and  with  which 
a  certain  familiarity  might  prove  very  valuable.  One 
school  has  a  multigraph  and  a  neostyle  on  which  girls 
are  trained  in  a  special  class  after  school,  thus  obviating 
the  difficulty  of  introducing  extra  work  into  the  regular 
curriculum.  Other  machinery,  such  as  the  comptometer 
and  billing  machines,   call  for  regular  operators  with 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  61 

a  certain  amount  of  definite  training.  Special  private 
schools  already  offer  training  on  the  comptometer,  bill- 
ing machine,  stenotype  and  dictaphone  and  guarantee 
positions,  but  employers  seem  to  agree  that  equal  pro- 
ficiency could  be  gained  by  a  few  hours  of  extra  work  for 
several  months  at  a  public  school.  Most  employers, 
in  fact,  have  to  give  further  training  to  many  of  their 
girls  now,  as  there  are  special  adaptations  of  the  work 
to  suit  various  kinds  of  business. 

These  new  machines,  however,  present  another  prob- 
lem to  the  school  as  to  the  justification  of  training  girls 
for  work  which  is  almost  purely  mechanical  in  its 
monotony.  One  socially-minded  employer  recognizes 
the  deadening  effect  of  machine  operating,  and  so  changes 
the  routine  of  his  girls'  work  as  often  as  possible.  He 
also  tries  to  appeal  to  their  general  inteUigence  by  keep- 
ing them  in  constant  touch  with  the  big  general  processes 
of  his  factory,  in  order  that  the  girls  may  see  the  signi- 
ficance of  their  particular  small  part.  Although  this 
machine  operating  seems  to  demand  little  technique 
in  the  beginning,  employers  usually  demand  high  school 
graduates  as  operators,  because  of  their  general  intelli- 
gence. As  the  wages  usually  range  from  SIO  to  SI 2  per 
week,  this  occupation  in  office  service  may  appeal  to 
certain  girls  who  have  a  fairly  mathematical  mind  and 
whose  general  background  or  technique  does  not  fit 
them  to  be  stenographers.  Such  girls  might  well  be 
encouraged  to  train  for  this  work,  if  the  possible  effect 
of  the  monotony  were  taken  into  consideration.  At  all 
events,  the  schools  must  keep  in  close  contact  with  all 
these  changes  in  the  organization  of  office  service  and 
study  the  effect  of  machinery  on  the  occupation  as  a 
whole,  as  well  as  on  the  health  of  the  individual. 

To  the  girl  in  office  service,  however,  technical  train- 
ing in  phonography  and  in  the  use  of  the  latest  office 
devices  is  almost  incidental.  It  is  her  ability  to  acquire 
and  use  with  her  technical  training  a  general  fund  of 
information,  which  establishes  her  value  to  her  employer, 
so  that  in  no  other  occupation  perhaps  does  the  advan- 


62  WOMEN   IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

tage  of  a  general  education  show  more  clearly.^  Every 
encouragement,  therefore,  should  be  given  to  these  girls 
to  go  to  school  as  long  as  possible  and  to  acquire  a  broad 
education.  Many  girls  may  feel  that  a  general  fund  of 
information  has  nothing  to  do  with  practical  work  and 
so  take  little  interest  in  so-called  "cultural"  subjects, 
but  careful  correlation  of  cultural  subjects  with  the 
practical  usage  of  office  service  may  stimulate  the 
necessary  interest  in  this  girl's  mind.  History  may  be 
taught  with  emphasis  on  the  growth  of  commerce,  and 
lessons  in  phonography  may  include  a  widely  varying 
range  of  subjects  which  may  be  very  broadening.  A 
topic  on  the  history  of  commerce  or  economics  may  lead 
her  to  inquire  into  certain  features  of  her  father's  or 
neighbor's  business  which  may  bring  business  interests 
to  her  attention  for  the  first  time.  The  correlation  of 
her  work  in  one  course  with  that  of  another  results  in  a 
most  beneficial  co-operation  of  the  teachers  of  the  several 
subjects.  In  one  school,  the  commercial  teachers  meet 
with  certain  teachers  of  the  general  course  and  discuss 
the  deficiencies  of  their  pupils.  If  a  certain  girl  is  weak 
in  her  punctuation,  her  phonography  teacher  recom- 
mends that  her  English  teacher  give  close  attention  to 
that  point.  If  a  history  theme  is  poorly  expressed,  it 
is  shown  to  the  English  teacher,  who  in  turn  may  report 
poor  penmanship.  Misspelled  words  are  recorded  and 
the  girl  is  drilled  in  typing  those  words  until  she  has 
learned  them.  A  list  of  difficult  words,  compiled  from 
the  records  of  all  the  teachers,  is  kept  for  reference,  and 
frequent  tests  are  given  on  them. 

Where  the  academic  teachers  are  co-operative  and 
appreciate  the  cultural  value  of  practical  work  in  which 
the  pupil  may  be  really  interested,  there  are  great 
possibilities  for  helpful  training.  Even  Latin,  most 
"academic"  of  subjects,  has  been  introduced  into  one 
commercial  course  with  the  best  of  results  on  grammar, 
spelling  and  proficiency  in  English.  If  pupils  could  be 
taught  to  see  the  real  relation  between  their  study  of 

*  See  Chapter  II,  page  42,  and  Chapter  IV,  pages  148  and  149. 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL   AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  63 

general  subjects  and  their  future  work,  many  who  now 
remain  in  apathy  and  are  indifferent  to  poor  marks  in 
English  and  the  cultural  subjects,  would  endeavor  to 
put  more  thought  into  their  work.  A  real  aid  towards 
forming  a  connection  and  creating  a  stimulus  would  be 
to  have  on  the  staff  commercial  teachers  who  have  had 
business  training,  and  also  academic  teachers  who  can 
appreciate  the  business  point  of  view.  Commercial 
teachers  can  suggest  correlation  and  the  curriculum 
may  demand  it,  but  a  corps  of  broad-minded  teachers 
who  can  see  cultural  value  in  vocational  subjects  can 
best  work  out  this  plan. 

The  teachers  of  general  and  commercial  courses  may 
also  co-operate  in  increasing  the  efficiency  of  commercial 
education  by  pointing  out  to  their  pupils  the  danger 
of  a  too  liberal  use  of  the  elective  system.  Under  this 
system,  which  is  now  prevalent,  many  pupils  who  are 
enrolled  in  the  general  course  intersperse  a  few  com- 
mercial subjects  in  their  regular  courses.  Thus,  although 
their  educational  background  and  general  information 
may  be  all  that  can  be  desired,  it  is  not  coupled  with 
sufficient  technical  training  to  make  them  acceptable 
candidates  for  office  service.  As  long  as  the  elective 
system  is  unrestricted,  such  pupils  will  acquire  a  smatter- 
ing of  commercial  subjects  and  apply  for  positions  as 
though  they  were  well-trained  workers.  If  a  girl  is 
discovered  doing  good  work,  in  an  elective  commercial 
course,  her  teachers  might  discuss  the  advisability  of 
suggesting  a  post-graduate  year  of  purely  commercial 
work,  rather  than  letting  her  spoil  her  general  course  of 
studies  in  the  third  or  fourth  year  by  a  scattered  choice 
of  commercial  subjects.  A  tendency  to  mix  the  two 
courses,  unless  on  a  well  considered  plan,  is  most 
unfortunate  and  should  be  discouraged.  Rather  let 
the  pupils  complete  the  general  course,  if  possible, 
and  then  concentrate  on  one  year  of  intensified  com- 
mercial work.  A  certain  amount  of  correlation  with 
the  girl's  own  interests  is  also  possible  in  her  general 
courses.     A  special  paper  in  English  may  have  for  its 


64  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

subject  a  topic  chosen  from  a  course  in  economics,  and 
if  a  girl  shows  special  interest  in  any  one  line  of  subjects, 
she  might  do  well  to  try  and  enter  an  office  where  that 
interest  may  be  of  value  to  herself  and  her  emplo.yer.  So 
far  there  seems  to  be  little  preference  or  thought  on  the 
part  of  the  high  school  girl  as  to  the  kind  of  business  to 
which  she  shall  give  her  service.  College  girls,  perhaps, 
recognize  that  their  special  training  in  chemistry  may 
make  them  useful  to  a  chemical  or  drug  manufacturer, 
or  a  girl  interested  in  economics  may  choose  to  work  for 
an  economics  professor.  On  the  part  of  high  school 
girls,  however,  the  offices  of  business  men,  lawyers  or 
manufacturers,  all  appeal  alike,  regardless  of  the  girl's 
natural  interest  in  one  phase  or  the  other.  May  not 
the  teachers  discover  a  certain  trait  or  interest  which 
may  qualify  a  girl  for  one  kind  of  business  more  than 
for  another?  If  girls  intend  to  become  secretaries,  they 
ought  to  have  the  vital  interest  in  their  employer's 
work  which  makes  them  share  his  responsibilities  and 
not  be  mere  machines  during  their  working  day. 

Besides  the  general  business  requirements  of  technique 
and  a  broad  education  which  the  schools  must  meet  by 
keeping  in  touch  with  the  business  world,  the  important 
demand  of  business  men  for  "personality"  cannot  be 
disregarded.^  Are  not  the  schools  really  negligent  if 
they  do  not  succeed  in  inculcating  the  proper  standards 
of  appearance  and  business  attitude  before  they  send 
their  pupils  to  apply  for  positions?  And  appearance 
and  a  business-like  manner  are  not  all  that  the  schools 
should  aim  to  develop.  Often,  after  a  girl  has  succeeded 
in  getting  a  position,  she  may  lose  it  by  her  unfamiliarity 
with  the  ethics  of  business,  and  who,  if  not  the  schools, 
shall  instruct  her  in  these  important  requisites  of  the 
business  world? 

The  girl's  relations  with  her  fellow  employees  and  her 
employer  may  also  need  some  constructive  suggestions 
from  the  school.  She  should  realize  that  all  friendly 
exchanges  of  confidence  as  to  last  night's  good  time  and 

>  See  detAiled  discussion,  Chapter  III,  page  91  et  aeq. 


THE  PUBLIC   SCHOOL  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  65 

the  pattern  of  a  new  dress  are  breaches  of  oflfiee  etiquette, 
and  as  such  should  be  discouraged  by  the  stenographer 
who  would  be  successful.  She  should  know  that  most 
employers  have  the  good  sense  to  realize  that  an 
intelligent  question  is  often  necessary  during  the  girl's 
first  weeks  in  her  position,  and  that  it  is  usually  better 
to  ask  a  certain  number  of  questions,  if  she  weighs 
the  possibilities  of  finding  them  out  by  other  means 
before  bothering  her  employer,  than  to  make  grave 
errors. 

How  may  the  schools  best  offer  this  rather  intangible 
training  in  appearance,  manner  and  business  ethics? 
Already,  the  teachers  claim  they  reiterate  constantly 
the  need  for  quiet  dress,  clean  personal  habits  and 
business-like  attitude,  but  with  meager  results,  as 
employers  testify.  The  part-time  schooling  plan  offers 
a  solution  by  allowing  advanced  commercial  students  to 
spend  a  certain  amount  of  time  in  the  business  office 
of  co-operative  employers  in  connection  with  the 
regular  school  work.  Already,  this  scheme  has  been 
worked  out  in  some  of  the  schools  with  excellent 
results.  In  one  school  the  pupils  are  given  practice  in 
billing  actual  sales  slips  which  are  loaned  to  the  school  by 
one  large  retail  clothing  store.  When  the  girls  have 
become  proficient  in  this  work,  they  are  hired  by  this 
store,  when  extra  help  is  needed,  for  several  days  at  a 
time.  Reports  are  made  to  the  teacher  as  to  the  girl's 
ability,  attitude,  appearance  and  punctuality  and  the 
teacher  then  emphasizes  these  points  to  the  individual 
pupils.  The  impression  which  such  suggestions  make 
on  a  girl's  mind  is  much  stronger  when  coming  from  an 
actual  business  man,  even  indirectly,  than  when  made 
by  the  teacher  only.  A  different  plan  has  worked  out 
very  successfully  in  another  school  where  advanced 
commercial  students  in  the  intensified  course  act  as 
clerical  assistants  to  the  grammar  school  principals. 
These  pupils  are  given  afternoon  work  in  the  grammar 
school  offices  in  filing,  typewriting  and  stenography  and 
are  graded  according  to  their  proficiency,  attitude  and 


66  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

general  ability.  Thus,  any  deficiencies  which  are 
reported  are  given  special  attention  by  their  teachers. 

Industrial  education  has  profited  greatly  bj^  this 
part-time  or  co-operative  vocational  training  which  has 
been  worked  out  by  Professor  Schneider  for  the  technical 
students  in  the  University  of  Cincinnati.  Commercial 
educators  in  Boston  have  already  applied  this  system 
in  connection  with  the  salesmanship  course  in  the  high 
schools  to  a  greater  extent  than  with  the  clerical  course. 
A  co-ordinator  between  shop  and  school  has  been 
appointed,  who  is  to  arrange  for  as  many  stores  as 
possible  to  be  used  as  laboratories  for  the  practical 
experience  of  high  school  students  of  salesmanship.  A 
similar  arrangement  for  the  wider  use  of  offices  as 
laboratories  for  training  clerical  and  general  office  help 
should  be  the  next  important  development  in  com- 
mercial education.  As  more  and  more  schools  realize 
the  benefit  of  practical  office  training  under  actual 
business  conditions,  however,  employers  will  be  besieged 
on  all  sides  by  requests  for  co-operation.  Before  this 
happens,  a  definite  organization  should  be  planned 
which  could  act  as  a  clearing  house  for  the  requests 
from  all  the  schools  and  which  would  also  canvass 
business  offices  in  order  to  interest  employers  in  co-opera- 
tion with  the  bureau. 

If  the  co-ordinator,  who  does  this  canvassing,  is  also  a 
''director  of  commercial  practice,"  or  has  some  close 
connection  with  the  planning  of  the  school  curriculum  he 
will  be  in  a  position  to  offer  invaluable  assistance  to  the 
school.  His  close  touch  with  business  men  will  enable 
him  to  diagnose  the  cases  of  inefficiency  which  are 
reported  to  him  and  to  plan  the  proper  remedy  or 
prevention.  He  can  help  employers  to  standardize 
their  requirements  and  the  schools  to  standardize  their 
graduates.  Thus,  part-time  schooling  will  serve  the 
double  purpose  of  providing  practical  experience  to  the 
pupils  and  practical  suggestions  to  the  teachers  from 
business  men. 

The  actual  contact  with  the  business  world,  which 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  67 

part-time  or  "co-operative"  schooling  offers,  is  just 
what  is  needed,  therefore,  to  tie  up  the  schools  with 
actual  business  demands.  Teachers  with  business  expe- 
rience will  be  absolutely  required,  and  more  careful 
training  in  office  practice  will  inevitably  result.  The 
example  of  a  well-known  business  college  might  well 
offer  suggestions  for  adaptations.  This  school  has  a 
course  in  office  practice  which  consists  in  demonstra- 
tions of  right  and  wrong  oflice  methods.  Such  a  course 
may  not  be  practicable  in  many  schools,  but,  at  least, 
it  shows  a  recognition  of  the  need  of  familiarizing  the 
pupils  with  oflSce  conditions.  To  attain  the  same  end, 
the  administrative  work  of  the  head  of  the  commercial 
course  might  be  conducted  in  an  office  fitted  with  all 
office  appliances,  and  the  pupils  might  take  turns  in 
having  charge  of  this  office  and  acting  as  the  master's 
clerical  assistants.  One  school  has  all  its  notices 
typewritten  or  multigraphed  by  commercial  pupils, 
who  also  do  much  of  the  clerical  work  for  the  evening 
school  which  is  held  in  the  same  building. 

Besides  offering  actual  office  practice  and  practical 
material  for  work,  the  schools  may  further  stimulate  a 
standard  for  their  pupils  by  having  successful  business 
men  and  women  give  a  series  of  talks  m  the  schools. 
These  talks  should  not  be  vague  generalizations  of 
conditions  in  the  business  world,  but  definite  sugges- 
tions to  the  girls,  who  are  to  enter  office  service,  as  to 
the  requirements  of  their  future  employers.  Business 
men  can  be  aroused  to  show  an  interest  in  this  phase  of 
education  which  is  so  closely  connected  with  their  work. 
Their  co-operation  is  essential,  and  the  schools  are 
right  in  demanding  that  they  formulate  a  standard  for 
the  commercial  course.  But  business  men  are  not  very 
clear  in  formulating  standards  for  their  office  help. 
Perhaps  ability  to  satisfy  the  employer  is  so  much  a 
matter  of  personality  that  he  cannot  judge  of  the  new 
candidate's  capability  on  first  sight,  or  by  a  technical 
test.  7Vt  any  rate,  the  methods  of  hiring  girls  in  office 
service  are  much  less  efficient  than  those  of  hiring  a 


68  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

salesman  or  manager.  For  instance,  a  man  would 
seldom  be  hired  "temporarily"  for  a  position  with  the 
tacit  understanding  that  if  he  suited  he  should  remain, 
as  is  often  the  case  with  girls.  The  employer  would 
satisfy  himself  pretty  thoroughly  as  to  the  man's  quali- 
fications before  hiring  him,  but  there  are  so  many  girls 
in  the  field  of  office  service  that  he  feels  no  compunction 
about  hiring  temporary  workers  till  he  finds  one  that 
is  satisfactory,  or  in  the  rough  parlance  of  one  employer, 
he  "hires  'em  and  fires  'em  till  he  gets  a  good  one." 
Such  haphazard  methods  encourage  a  fringe  of  casual 
and  temporary  workers  which  tends  to  lower  the  wage 
and  educational  standards.  Employers  may  well  con- 
sider, therefore,  whether  they  ought  not  to  standardize 
their  requirements  more  carefully  and  avoid  the  danger 
of  encouraging  a  large  number  of  poorly-equipped, 
half-educated  workers,  who  are  attracted  by  the  appar- 
ently large  number  of  openings  which  are  really  only 
temporary. 

Besides  asking  business  men  to  co-operate  and  to 
standardize  their  requirements,  the  schools  and  their 
pupils  should  receive  some  help  from  talks  by  business 
women.  There  are  many  women  whose  business  experi- 
ence would  enable  them  to  point  the  way  for  many  a 
girl  who  is  starting  her  business  career.  These  women 
could  point  out  the  difficulties  as  well  as  the  opportu- 
nities in  such  a  career.  Acquaintance  with  their  success 
and  the  methods  by  which  it  was  attained  should  offer 
a  stimulus  to  a  girl  such  as  no  inspired  talk  by  a  business 
man  could  give.  Business  women  are  ready  and  eager 
to  give  vocational  advice  to  their  younger  sisters,  and 
a  very  vital  and  systematic  co-operation  may  easily 
be  secured. 

The  placement  of  their  graduates  is  a  consideration 
which  every  school  for  vocational  training  is  bound  to 
face.  At  least  two  Boston  high  schools  make  a  system- 
atic effort  to  place  their  pupils,  while  others  rely  on  the 
casual  friendly  efforts  of  individual  teachers.  A  strong 
argument  for  the  part-time  schooling  plan  is  that  it 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  69 

calls  for  an  organization  which  may  also  be  used  as  a 
central  placement  agency  for  permanent  positions. 
The  co-ordinator  who  receives  the  apphcations  for 
part-time  positions  from  the  schools  and  fills  these 
applications  by  means  of  his  close  acquaintance  with 
the  employers  may  also  have  an  opportunity  to  fill 
permanent  positions.  The  machinery  is  there  for  form- 
ing a  connection  between  schools  and  employers,  which 
opens  a  very  great  opportunity  to  the  school  in  the 
placement  of  its  graduates.  The  two  schools  which  are 
already  placing  some  of  their  graduates  are  keeping 
records  of  their  business  experience,  but  this  means  a 
large  amount  of  voluntary  work  on  the  part  of  the 
teachers,  whose  time  for  clerical  work  and  for  canvassing 
employers  is  necessarily  limited.  Even  these  small 
attempts,  however,  have  been  very  successful  in  arousing 
the  interest  of  business  men  and  in  stimulating  the  pupils 
to  qualify  for  positions  from  the  school. 

The  methods  now  resorted  to  by  high  school  girls  in 
securing  positions  are  inefficient  and  precarious  ^  and 
the  schools  might  well  consider  replacing  them  by  a 
regular  and  centralized  system.  None  of  the  present 
methods,  except,  perhaps,  the  suggestions  of  relatives 
or  friends,  gives  much  consideration  to  the  girl's  special 
aptitude  for  her  position.  The  waste  in  efficiency  both 
to  girl  and  employer  in  not  relating  a  girl's  interests 
and  talents  to  her  employer's  needs  is  a  consideration 
which  the  schools  must  face.  The  loss  of  time  and  of 
technical  skill  while  seeking  positions,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  disagreeable  circumstances  which  maj^  arise  in 
interviewing  many  employers,  might  well  be  avoided. 
There  is  more  than  an  ethical  reason  for  the  schools 
entering  this  field  of  employment  agencies;  the  effect 
on  standardizing  the  quality  of  graduates  who  shall 
be  placed  will  not  be  negligible.  The  pupils  will  have 
this  standard  constantly  in  mind,  and  will  recognize 
the  fallacy  of  leaving  school  before  graduating.  The 
tendency  of  the  business  college  to  attract  pupils  from  the 

'  For  further  discussion  see  Chapter  III,  page  100. 


70  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

high  school  by  offering  to  secure  positions  for  graduates 
of  their  course  will  also  be  somewhat  counteracted.  In 
fact,  most  schools  offering  vocational  and  technical 
training  find  that  as  a  matter  of  course  they  are  called 
upon  to  place  their  graduates  not  so  much  for  the  sake 
of  getting  them  positions  as  of  meeting  the  demands  of 
employers  for  workers.  When  the  high  school,  there- 
fore, comes  to  be  recognized  as  a  place  where  pupils  are 
well  equipped  for  office  service,  employers  are  going  to 
apply  to  that  source.  The  schools  have  only  to  provide 
the  proper  agency  and  machinery,  and  employers  will 
immediately  be  found  who  already  recognize  the  value 
of  the  high  school  product  and  will  demand  it. 

Summarizing,  the  situation  of  commercial  education 
for  girls  in  the  Boston  high  schools  is,  on  the  whole, 
favorable,  in  spite  of  the  handicaps  commercial  edu- 
cators have  had  from  the  start.  As  almost  two-thirds 
of  the  total  number  of  girls  enrolled  in  the  nine  general 
high  schools  elected  commercial  subjects,  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  increase  still  further  the  efficiency 
of  this  important  branch  of  training. 

The  courses  now  offered  are  largely  clerical  in  nature, 
with  varying  degrees  of  emphasis  on  correlation  with 
general  and  commercial  subjects.  The  importance  of 
this  correlation  is  significant  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
commercial  pupils  do  not  rank  so  high  in  all  their 
subjects  as  do  the  academic,  but  that  the  former  get 
higher  marks  in  their  technical  than  in  their  general 
subjects.  Proper  correlation  would  interest  these  "prac- 
tical-minded" pupils  in  the  actual  application  of  their 
general  subjects.  The  relatively  greater  instability  of 
commercial  pupils  at  the  end  of  the  second  year,  when 
almost  twice  as  many  commercial  as  academic  pupils 
drop  out,  may  be  due  to  economic  pressure,  coupled 
with  a  desire  to  use  the  few  rudiments  of  commercial 
education,  inducing  many  of  the  former  to  leave  school 
and  go  to  work.  This  tendency  must  be  taken  into 
consideration  by  the  schools,  and  a  series  of  unit  courses 
might  well  be  considered  to  meet  the  needs  of  such  girls. 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  71 

Moreover,  a  clear  and  forceful  presentation  to  both  girl 
and  parent  of  the  fact  that  the  more  the  schooling  the 
better  is  the  wage,  might  reduce  this  exodus  of  inade- 
quately equipped  pupils  at  the  end  of  the  second  year 
in  high  school. 

The  efficiency  of  the  commercial  courses  was  tested 
by  the  experience  of  the  graduates,  and  compared  with 
that  of  girls  with  varying  degrees  of  schooling.  More 
than  one-third  of  the  935  graduates  studied  was  found 
to  be  still  in  office  service  —  most  of  them  as  stenog- 
raphers, as  that  is  the  training  in  which  the  schools 
specialize.  The  clerks  and  bookkeepers  in  the  group 
studied  had  had  less  education  and  were  earning  a 
lower  wage.  Three-fifths  of  the  clerks  and  almost 
one-half  of  the  bookkeepers  were  earning  less  than  $9, 
as  compared  with  only  one-third  of  the  stenographers. 
The  need  for  as  much  training  as  possible  is  evidently 
widely  felt,  for  about  one-fourth  of  the  group  studied 
had  gone  to  business  college,  and  more  than  one-half 
had  attended  either  business  college  or  evening  school. 
This  additional  training  increases  the  wage  opportuni- 
ties, for  more  than  two-fifths  of  all  girls  receiving  a 
beginning  wage  of  $8  and  over  had  had  extra  training, 
as  compared  with  less  than  one-fifth  of  those  starting 
at  less  than  $8.  After  some  years  of  experience  the 
advantage  is  still  apparent;  three-fourths  of  the  high 
school  graduates  with  extra  training,  as  compared  with 
two-thirds  without,  were  earning  $9  and  more. 

The  public  schools  are  meeting,  to  some  extent,  this 
desire  and  need  for  further  training,  for  almost  as  large 
a  number  was  enrolled  in  the  evening  commercial  high 
schools  as  in  the  day  high  schools.  The  problem  here  is 
even  more  difficult  than  in  the  day  schools,  for  the  group 
is  less  homogeneous,  presenting  wide  variations  as  to 
age,  education,  home  background,  occupation  and  length 
of  experience.  Almost  all  were  at  work,  and  more  than 
one-half  had  begun  work  under  16  years  of  age,  which 
may  be  partly  due  to  economic  pressure,  since  more 
than  two-thirds  of  all   the  girls  were  of   foreign-born 


72  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

parentage.  Two-fifths  of  the  gu-ls  were  in  office  service, 
but  since  more  than  one-half  of  these  girls  had  not  gone 
beyond  the  second  year  of  high  school,  they  were  largely 
in  the  lower  grades  of  the  occupation.  This  small 
amount  of  schooling  explains,  to  a  large  extent,  their 
low  wage,  for  almost  one-half  of  these  girls  in  office 
service  were  earning  less  than  $8  as  compared  with  less 
than  one-fifth  of  the  day  school  pupils. 

In  order  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  future  employers  of 
the  commercial  pupils,  only  those  possessing  the  proper 
qualifications  for  office  service  should  be  encouraged 
to  take  the  training,  and  with  this  foundation,  the 
schools  should  follow  the  trend  of  the  business  world 
in  order  to  adjust  the  technical  and  general  education 
to  business  demands.  The  present  elective  system, 
which  allows  a  pupil  to  acquire  a  smattering  of  com- 
mercial subjects  at  the  expense  of  her  general  course 
and  at  the  loss  of  efficiency  in  employment,  should  be 
restricted.  Every  plan  w^hich  allows  the  pupil  to  ac- 
quire as  broad  an  education  and  as  thorough  a  technical 
training  as  possible,  should  be  strongly  urged,  and  its 
value  impressed  on  teachers,  pupils  and  parents.  Many 
pupils  enter  the  business  world  with  a  satisfactory 
general  and  technical  training,  however,  who  have  no 
conception  of  business  standards  of  ''personality" — 
including  neat  personal  appearance,  co-operative  atti- 
tude, sense  of  responsibility  and  an  appreciation  of 
business  ethics.  The  part-time  schooling  plan  seems 
best  adapted  to  provide  this  rather  intangible  equip- 
ment for  "business  personality,"  by  allowing  the  girl 
to  come  into  contact  with  business  conditions  while 
still  in  school,  and  to  profit  by  suggestions  from  her 
employer  to  her  teacher.  This  scheme  has  another 
advantage,  besides  bringing  pupil  and  teacher  in  touch 
with  business  requirements,  in  offering  a  means  for  the 
permanent  placement  of  graduates  through  its  central 
agency  or  co-ordinator.  The  successful  placement  of 
graduates,  by  this  means,  needs  only  the  appreciation 
by  business  men  of  the  adequacy  of  the  high  school 


THE   PUBLIC   SCHOOL  AND   ITS   PROBLEMS.  73 

commercial  training.  Commercial  teachers,  therefore, 
must  secure  pupils  who  are  qualified  for  the  occupation, 
offer  them  training  in  general  and  practical  subjects 
which  shall  be  a  stimulus  for  interest  in  their  future  work, 
and  so  acquaint  them  with  the  demands  and  usages 
of  the  business  world  that  these  graduates  may  attain 
the  end  of  efficiency  in  useful  employment  which  is  the 
aim  of  all  vocational  education. 


74  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


CHAPTER   III.— CHARACTER   OF   OFFICE 
SERVICE 


Jean  M.  Cunningham 


Office  service  is  an  auxiliary  occupation  to  every 
industry,  business  and  profession  which  requires  record- 
ing, transcribing  or  computing  accounts.  In  1910, 
1,523,891  people  were  engaged  in  office  work,  two- 
thirds  (62.4  per  cent)  of  whom  were  men  and  one-third 
(37.6  per  cent)  women. ^  Duties  in  offices  vary  exceed- 
ingly, but  in  general,  workers  may  be  classified  as  clerks, 
bookkeepers  and  accountants,  stenographers  and  typists, 
and  secretaries.  With  the  exception  of  secretaries,  who 
are  grouped  with  stenographers  and  typists,  these  are 
the  Census  classifications.  At  first  sight  they  seem 
clear-cut  and  separate,  but  a  study  of  the  occupation 
reveals  great  confusion  of  terms  and  overlapping  of 
duties. 

Clerks  constitute  almost  one-half  (47.3  per  cent)  of 
the  total  number  in  office  service.  The  term  clerk 
includes  persons  engaged  in  such  widely  diverse  pur- 
suits as  those  of  bank  clerks,  postal  clerks,  mail  clerks, 
mail  carriers,  clerks  in  national,  state,  county  or  city 
offices  and  shipping  clerks.  Many  of  these  occupations 
have  not  been  opened  to  women  yet,  so  the  last  Census 
showed  that  more  than  four-fifths  (83  per  cent)  of  the 
clerks  in  the  United  States  were  men.  Many  of  these 
clerkships  involve  work  of  the  most  responsible  nature 
and  pay  salaries  commensurate  to  the  work.  The 
opportunities  in  this  field  differ  widely,  however,  for 
men  and  for  women.  The  more  responsible  and 
relatively  well-paid  positions  in  banks  or  as  shipping 
clerks  are  practically  monopolized  by  men.     While  the 

>  United  States  Cenaus,  1910,  Volume  IV,  Population,  Occupation  Staiiatica,  page  94. 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE  SERVICE.  75 

women  clerks,  so-called,  in  national,  state,  county  and 
city  offices  employed  under  Civil  Service,  may  hold 
responsible  and  well-paid  positions,  those  found  in 
business  offices  are  usually  doing  work  requiring  little  or 
no  technical  training  and  less  general  education  than  in 
the  other  kinds  of  office  work.  They  may  be  addressing 
envelopes,  counting  or  checking  sales  or  transfer  sUps, 
recording  all  sorts  of  business  transactions,  or  engaged 
in  that  indeterminate  work  called  ''general  office  work." 
While  the  large  proportion  of  clerks  are  men,  more  than 
one-j&fth  (21.4  per  cent)  of  the  total  number  of  women 
engaged  in  office  service  in  the  United  States  were  in 
this  occupation.  These  women  clerks  are  the  least 
skilled,  least  paid,  and  have  the  smallest  amount  of 
education  of  the  women  in  office  service.  More  than 
two-thirds  (67.7  per  cent)  of  the  675  clerks  studied  in 
business  offices  were  not  high  school  graduates.^  One- 
fourth  of  the  clerks  earned  less  than  $8  and  more  than 
three-fourths  (76  per  cent)  earned  less  than  SI 2. 

About  one-third  (31.9  per  cent)  of  the  people  in  the 
United  States  who  were  working  in  offices  in  1910  were 
reported  as  bookkeepers.  Two- thirds  of  these  were 
men  and  one-third  women.  Bookkeeping  employed 
about  one-third  (32.7  per  cent)  of  the  total  number  of 
women  in  office  service.  A  study  of  business  offices 
shows  that  this  per  cent  may  be  disproportionately 
large.  A  bookkeeper  or  accountant  is  a  person  with  a 
high  degree  of  training,  capable  of  keeping  a  complete 
set  of  accounts.  Division  of  labor  has  developed  in 
office  service  as  in  all  other  occupations  and  especially 
is  this  evident  in  bookkeeping.  Bookkeepers,  in  the 
strict  sense,  who  keep  a  complete  set  of  books  are 
seldom  found  now  in  the  large  offices.  In  their  place 
are  many  clerks  who  each  do  a  small  part  of  bookkeep- 
ing and  are  called  ledger  clerks,  billing  clerks,  billing 
machine  operators,  pay  roll  clerks,  cashiers  and  others 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  business  of  the  employer. 
The  results  of  the  work  of  these  many  clerks  are  col- 

«  See  Chupter  IV,  page  128. 


76  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 

lected  and  combined  by  one  bookkeeper,  usually  a  man. 
For  instance,  in  one  of  the  large  down-town  stores,  131 
women  are  employed  in  the  bookkeeping  department 
but  no  one  could  be  called  a  bookkeeper,  although  five 
earned  $18  or  more  a  week.  A  man  combines  the  results 
of  the  women's  work  and  does  the  only  real  bookkeep- 
ing in  the  department. 

The  returns  from  the  study  of  1,177  women  in  offices 
showed  only  2.5  per  cent  bookkeepers  and  accountants 
according  to  the  definition  given  above,  in  contrast  to 
32.7  per  cent  reported  by  the  Census.  On  the  other 
hand,  57.3  per  cent  were  returned  as  clerks  and  copy- 
ists instead  of  21.4  per  cent  reported  by  the  Census.^ 
Since  the  United  States  Census  of  Occupations  is  gained 
by  a  house  to  house  canvass,  many  may  have  reported 
themselves  bookkeepers  who  were  merely  clerks  working 
in  a  bookkeeping  department,  and  may  not  necessarily 
have  a  complete  knowledge  of,  nor  do  bookkeeping  in 
the  strict  sense  of  the  word.  Since  the  differentiation 
is  not  definitely  drawn,  a  combination  of  both  book- 
keepers and  clerks  shows  about  the  same  proportion, 
both  in  the  official  Census  and  the  local  survey.  The 
Census  for  1910  reported  32.7  per  cent  of  the  women 
working  in  offices  as  bookkeepers,  and  21.4  per  cent  as 
clerks,  or  about  54.1  per  cent  in  both  occupations. 
Accepting  the  definition  of  bookkeepers  as  given  above, 
only  2.5  per  cent  of  the  1,177  women  canvassed  were 
called  bookkeepers  and  57.3  per  cent  were  classified 
as  clerks,  making  a  total  of  59.8  per  cent  in  both 
occupations. 

From  an  educational  standpoint  it  is  important  to 
know  just  what  proportion  are  actually  "bookkeepers" 
and  what  part  are  doing  merely  clerical  work.  The  old 
type  of  general  bookkeeper,  doing  all  processes,  is  rarely 
found  now  in  any  up-to-date  offices  except  the  small 
ones,  where  all  accounts  may  be  kept  by  one  individual. 
This  is  of  particular  interest  to  educators  who  must 

•  United  States  Census,  1910,  Volume  IV,  Population,  Occupation  Statistics,  page  94. 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE   SERVICE.  77 

realize  that  there  will  be  but  little  opportunity  for  the 
girl  to  use  the  general  bookkeeping  as  taught  in  the 
schools  except  in  the  small  offices.  This  does  not  mean, 
however,  that  the  courses  in  bookkeeping  now  given 
in  the  high  schools  should  not  be  continued,  as  they 
doubtless  provide  in  the  most  concrete  and  interesting 
way  to  the  pupil  the  requisite  background  of  mathe- 
matics and  business  procedure  needed  in  any  work  in 
the  bookkeeping  department.  A  knowledge  of  the 
elements  of  bookkeeping  may  be  a  valuable  asset  to  the 
stenographer.  Many  small  offices,  where  accounts  are 
simple,  require  only  one  person  as  stenographer  and 
bookkeeper.  Again  and  again,  girls  have  said  that  if 
they  had  known  something  about  bookkeeping,  they 
might  have  doubled  their  salary.  Instead  their  employ- 
ers, whose  business  had  grown,  have  been  forced  to 
employ  an  additional  girl  to  do  the  bookkeeping  or  else 
get  someone  who  could  do  both.  A  knowledge  of  book- 
keeping may  be  a  decided  asset  in  advancing  from  a 
stenographic  to  an  administrative  position  as  well  as 
in  securing  a  new  position. 

While  men  predominate  among  the  clerks  and  book- 
keepers, stenography  and  typewriting  employ  263,315, 
almost  one-half  (45.9  per  cent)  of  the  women  in  office 
service  in  the  United  States,^  and  is  distinctly  woman's 
field.  It  is  also  one  of  the  few  occupations  for  women 
"which  requires  technical  training  in  addition  to  a 
general  education."  -  It  is  this  technical  requirement, 
the  ability  to  write  in  shorthand  or  operate  a  typewriter, 
which  distinguishes  this  class  from  the  clerks  and  copy- 
ists. As  a  group,  also,  the  stenographers  show  a  higher 
degree  of  education  and  a  greater  earning  capacity. 
Almost  one-half  (48.3  per  cent)  of  the  439  stenographers 
and  typists  studied  in  the  offices  were  high  school 
graduates,  while  less  than  a  third  (29  per  cent)  of  the 
675  clerks  had  graduated  from  high  schools.  ^Yhi\e 
more  than  one-fourth  (25.5  per  cent)  of  the  clerks  earned 

'  United  yuites  Ceasus,  1910,  Volume  IV,  Population,  Occupation  Statistics,  pnge  94. 
»  United  SUates  Census,  1900,  Women  at  Work,  page  102. 


78  WOMEN   IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

less  than  $8,  only  one-twentieth  (5  per  cent)  of  the 
stenographers  and  typists  were  in  this  low-paid  group. ^ 

WTiile  stenography  and  typewriting  is  almost  exclu- 
sively a  woman's  occupation,  less  than  one-fifth  being 
men,^  many  railroad  offices,  some  government  and 
occasional  business  offices  demand  or  prefer  men  stenog- 
raphers, who  may  learn  the  business  of  the  office  and 
later  be  in  line  for  promotion  to  more  responsible  places. 
Several  offices  visited  in  this  investigation  gave  this 
reason  for  their  preference  for  men  as  stenographers. 

The  secretary's  position  is  the  goal  toward  which 
ambitious  women  stenographers  strive.  A  well-known 
writer  has  said,  ''The  so-called  secretary  may  address 
envelopes  all  day  or  she  may  dictate  original  letters  to  a 
score  of  clerks.  She  may  do  one  thing  exactly  as  she 
is  told  from  Monday  morning  to  Saturday  night  or  she 
may  organize,  control,  and  initiate."  ^  This  is  indeed 
a  wide  divergence  in  duties,  but  in  reality  the  person 
who  addresses  envelopes  all  day  or  does  exactly  as  she 
is  told  from  Monday  to  Saturday  is  seldom,  if  ever, 
called  a  secretary  in  the  business  world.  The  boundary 
line  between  a  private  or  head  stenographer  and  a 
secretary  is  rather  indistinct,  but  the  "stenographer's 
position,  requiring  an  intelligent  knowledge  of  ste- 
nography, combined  with  accuracy  and  speed,  seems  to 
verge  into  the  secretary's  position  when  the  stenographer 
has  made  herself  valuable  to  her  employer  and  has 
been  intrusted  with  a  great  variety  of  duties,  some  per- 
sonal, some  more  responsible,  requiring  necessarily 
more  initiative  and  use  of  executive  powers.""*  No 
one  has  been  considered  a  secretary  in  this  report  unless 
her  position  were  a  responsible  one,  requiring  initiative 
and  executive  ability,  and  it  has  been  further  limited 
to  positions  paying  SI 2  or  more,  since  a  lower  wage 
seldom  indicates  either   of    these   qualities.     A   broad 

>  See  Chapter  IV,  pages  128-130  inclusive. 

'  United  States  Census,  1910,  Volume  IV,  Population,  Occupation  Slaliatica,  page  94. 

'  Department  of  Research,  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  Vocation*  for 
the  Trained  Woman,  Part  I,  page  201. 

*  Department  of  Research,  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  Vocations  for 
the  Trained  Woman,  Part  II,  page  117. 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE  SERVICE.  79 

knowledge  of  the  business  of  her  employer,  a  high 
degree  of  ability  and  responsibility  are  the  requisites 
of  the  real  secretary.  For  this  reason,  a  woman  without 
a  broad  general  education  can  seldom  reach  this  respon- 
sible position.  Since  an  intimate  knowledge  of  her 
employer's  business  affairs  is  usually  necessary  to  the 
secretary,  few  women  deserve  that  title  who  have  had 
less  than  one  or  two  years  of  business  experience. 
Three-fourths  of  the  thirty-four  secretaries  studied  in 
the  offices  were  graduates  of  high  schools,  and  more  than 
four-fifths  of  these  had  taken  additional  training  after 
high  school,  either  in  commercial  schools  or  colleges. 
More  than  three-fourths  had  more  than  two  years' 
experience  and  more  than  one-half  had  been  in  office 
work  more  than  five  years.  This  greater  education 
and  experience  naturally  commands  a  higher  salary 
than  is  given  to  other  positions  in  office  service.  More 
than  four-fifths  of  the  women  reported  as  secretaries 
received  S15  or  over.^ 

While  there  are  secretaries,  stenographers,  book- 
keepers and  clerks,  the  line  of  demarcation  is  often  very 
difficult  to  discover  and  some  workers  may  perform  the 
duties  of  all.  Office  service,  like  the  women's  clothing 
trade,  has  but  recently  been  caught  in  the  current  of 
modern  business  organization  and  administration.  The 
large  and  the  small  office  made  different  demands  on 
their  workers.  Division  of  labor  and  specialized  workers 
characterize  the  large  office.  General  workers  who 
perform  many  or  all  the  different  kinds  of  office  work 
are  required  in  the  small  ofl^ce,  but  usually  the  work  of 
the  woman  in  a  small  office  is,  predominantly,  of  one 
kind  or  another.  Bookkeeping,  doubtless,  will  be  the 
primary  occupation  of  the  office  girl  in  a  small  manu- 
facturing establishment.  The  girl  employed  in  a  lawyer's 
office  may  be,  primarily,  a  stenographer  or  a  secretary. 
The  necessity  for  equipping  a  number  of  girls  with  a 

>  The  direct  influence  of  ndvanced  education  in  commanding  a  higher  salary  in  secre- 
torial  work  is  shown  in  the  report  of  Miss  Margaret  A.  Post.  Department  of  Research, 
Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  Vocations  for  the  Trained  Woman  Part  II ' 
page  129.  '  ' 


80 


WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


knowledge  of  all  these  branches  of  office  work  is  a  prob- 
lem confronting  the  schools.  Many  trained  in  all 
these  branches  of  office  service  may  go  into  large  offices 
where  the  work  is  highly  specialized,  and  so  have  little 


Table  19. —  Showing  the  Number  of  Stenographers  and  Typists 
placed  by  Four  Typewriter  Agencies  in  Boston  during  the 
Year,  January,   I9I2  to  1913. 


Types  of  EMPiiOTEKS. 


Stenooraphers  Placed  at 
Specified  Wage. 


UNDER  $12. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 
Cent. 


$12  AND  OVER. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 

Cent. 


Total. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per 
Cent. 


Manufacturing  Firms 

Mercantile  Firms 

Selling  and  other  Agencies 

Banks  and  Trust  Companies 

Insurance  Firms 

Real  Estate  Agents 

Brokers 

Printers  and  Publishers 

Lawyers , 

Doctors 

Public  Stenographers 

Engineers  and  Architects 

Transportation  and  Public  Service ... 

Civil  Service 

Social  and  other  Organizations 

Libraries  and  Educational  Institutions 

Private  Persons 

Miscellaneous 

Total 


473 

124 

1,228 

80 

230 

68 

99 

239 

238 

17 

250 

97 

169 

37 

86 

27 

102 

237 


47.7 
58.2 
40.6 
32.1 
47.4 
48.9 
43.8 
61.8 
40.3 
56.7 
71.0 
36.9 
38.2 
20.6 
39.8 
28.4 
28.9 
53.6 


519 

89 

1.796 

169 

255 

71 
127 
148 
352 

13 
102 
166 
273 
143 
130 

68 
251 
205 


52.3 
41.8 
59.4 
67.9 
52.6 
51.1 
56.2 
38.2 
59.7 
43.3 
29.0 
63.1 
61.8 
79.4 
60.2 
71.6 
71.1 
46.4 


992 
213 
3,024 
249 
485 
139 
226 
387 
590 

30 
352 
263 
442 
180 
216 

95 
353 
442 


100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 


3,801 


43.8 


4,877 


56.2 


8,678 


100.0 


opportunity  to  use  this  general  training.  Yet,  if  girls  of 
limited  and  inadequate  general  education  avail  them- 
selves of  short  intensive  courses  preparing  for  particular 
processes,  they  may  find  themselves  handicapped  and 
limited  principally  to  the  large  offices  with  much  routine. 
Their  limited  general  and  technical  education  will  prove 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE   SERVICE.  81 

a  serious  handicap  for  the  majority.  Only  a  few 
unusually  bright  or  energetic  girls  will  be  able  to  advance 
to  good  positions  in  spite  of  their  inadequate  prehminary 
preparation. 

As  the  occupation  and  the  size  of  the  office  determine 
the  character  of  the  work,  the  financial  possibilities, 
and  the  opportunities  for  advancement,  so,  also,  may 
the  business  of  the  employer  present  particular  diffi- 
culties or  opportunities  to  the  woman  in  office  service. 
The  many  kinds  of  business  employing  women  in  offices 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  calls  for  stenographers  and 
typists  alone,  taken  from  the  records  of  four  typewriter 
companies  for  the  year  1913,  These  agencies  place  a 
large  number  of  girls  each  year,  and  are  important 
clearing  houses  for  employers  and  workers.  Almost 
one-fourth  (24.4  per  cent)  of  the  positions  reported  by 
the  439  stenographers  and  typists  studied  from  offices 
were  secured  through  this  medium  and  9,488  placements 
were  made  by  five  agencies  during  the  year.^ 

The  stenographers  and  typists  placed  by  the  type- 
writer agencies  are  limited  to  those  who  pass  a  test  for 
accuracy  and  speed  which  eliminates  the  unskilled 
worker.  On  the  other  hand,  few  of  the  very  highly 
trained  women  who  command  big  salaries  appear 
through  this  medium,  for  such  women  are  seldom  look- 
ing for  positions  through  an  agency.  The  group,  then, 
represents  the  great  middle  class  of  well-trained  stenogra- 
phers and  typists  who  can  pass  the  stenographic  test 
of  one  hundred  words  a  minute  and  show  a  general 
knowledge  of  office  requirements. 

The  wage  indicated  is  the  placement  wage  or  amount 
which  the  employer  gives  the  girl  when  she  enters  his 
service.  It  is  natural  to  suppose  that  where  the  girl 
proves  satisfactory  and  remains  with  her  employer,  her 
wage  will  be  increased  from  time  to  time.  Few  of  the 
placements  made  by  the  typewriter  agencies  were  for  a 
wage  less  than  $8,  but  the  division  has  been  made  at 

•  Records  of  one  iigoncy  did  not  give  the  business  of    the  stenoKropher'a  amployer.     Tha 
table  is  baaed  on  the  records  of  four  agencies. 


82  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

SI 2  as  this  amount  may  be  taken,  if  not  a  minimum 
living  wage  for  a  stenographer,  as  more  nearly  adequate 
for  the  demands  of  the  position. 

Selling  and  allied  agencies  of  wholesale  houses,  branch 
offices  of  firms,  such  as  great  flour  companies,  patented 
foods  and  drug  companies  and  all  selling  concerns  other 
than  retail  shops  and  stores,  took  more  than  one-third 
(34.8  per  cent)  of  the  number  placed  by  the  typewriter 
companies  during  the  year.  These  large  selling  offices 
are  located  in  the  down-town  district  where  the  office 
rooms  are  usually  attractive  and  comfortable.  They 
demand  and  pay  for  a  good  grade  of  work.  More  than 
one-half  (59.4  per  cent)  of  the  stenographers  sent  to 
these  offices  were  placed  at  $12  or  more.  These  agencies 
are  so  varied  in  character  that  few  generalizations. can 
be  made  as  to  the  opportunities  they  ofTer  for  advance- 
ment and  development.  Some  of  them  are  small 
offices  where  one  girl  may  do  all  the  clerical,  stenographic 
and  bookkeeping  work.  Her  opportunities  for  advance- 
ment rest,  to  a  great  degree,  upon  the  advancement 
and  growth  of  the  business  in  which  she  is  employed. 
Other  selling  agencies  employ  many  hundreds  of  women 
in  the  offices  and  offer  opportunity  primarily  for  special- 
ized work  of  many  kinds,  but  include  some  positions  of 
trust  and  responsibility.  Each  department  may  be 
presided  over  by  a  ''head  stenographer"  or  "head 
bookkeeper"  and  there  may  be  one  or  more  "private 
secretaries"  to  the  managers  of  different  departments. 

The  retail  mercantile  establishments  make  com- 
paratively small  demands  upon  the  typewriter  agencies 
for  their  office  workers  for  several  reasons.  Most  large 
department  stores  maintain  their  own  employment 
bureaus.  For  that  reason  the  calls  upon  the  type- 
writer agencies  must  be  for  specialized  workers  not 
available  through  their  own  agencies  or  they  are  from 
smaller  shops  and  stores  which  do  not  maintain  employ- 
ment bureaus.  While  department  stores  have  a  large 
office  force,  comparatively  few  of  them  are  stenogra- 
phers and  typists.     For  instance,  in  a  large  store  with 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE   SERVICE.  83 

an  office  force  of  326  women,  less  than  8  per  cent  are 
stenographers  or  typists.  The  remaining  92  per  cent 
are  mostly  clerks  and  copyists  who  have  little  technical 
training  and  do  not  often  pass  through  the  typewTiter 
bureaus.  The  office  work  in  retail  stores  is  usually  of 
a  more  or  less  routine  character  and  opportunity  to 
advance  out  of  purely  office  positions  is  very  limited. 
Advancement  of  women  to  administrative  positions  in 
stores  is  more  often  made  from  the  sales  than  from  the 
clerical  force.  More  than  one-half  (58.2  per  cent)  of 
the  stenographers  and  typists  sent  to  retail  estabUsh- 
ments  were  placed  at  less  than  $12.  The  wage  scale 
for  the  office  force,  as  a  whole,  in  the  department  stores 
is  low.  In  the  store  previously  mentioned,  only  15.9 
per  cent  of  the  326  women  in  the  office  received  $12  or 
more.  More  discouraging  still  were  the  wages  quoted 
for  6,296  women  in  the  offices  of  department  stores 
in  several  large  cities  where  only  6.6  per  cent  earned 
$12  or  more.^ 

Offices  of  factories  received  11.4  per  cent  of  the 
stenographers  and  typists  placed  through  the  type- 
writer agencies,  less  than  half  the  number  placed  in 
selling  agencies.  Office  conditions  in  factories  may  be 
exceptionally  good  in  the  new  well-built  factories  or 
may  be  exceedingly  poor  in  others.  The  factories  are 
often  located  in  the  outskirts  of  the  city  or  in  the  suburbs, 
although  clothing  factories  are  usually  up  in  high 
buildings  in  the  center  of  the  city.  The  office  girl  in 
many  of  the  clothing  factories  frequently  must  be  a 
bookkeeper,  keeping  the  accounts  of  receipts,  expendi- 
tures, sales  and  shipments,  making  up  the  weekly 
pay  roll  for  fifty  or  one  hundred  employees,  and 
inclosing  the  money  in  the  pay  envelopes  each  Satur- 
day. Moreover,  she  must  be  a  stenographer  to  take 
her  employer's  dictation  and  a  typist  to  typewrite  his 
business  correspondence.  In  other  words,  she  must  be 
an    "all-round"    or   general   worker.     Such   a   woman 

>  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  }Vomen  and  Child  Wage  Earners  in  the  United  Statea, 
Volume  V.     Waoe-eaming  Women  in  Stores  and  Factories,  page  45. 


84  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

usually  earns  from  $12  to  $15  a  week.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  office  force  of  a  big  shoe  factory  may  be 
divided  into  many  departments  with  highly  specialized 
workers.  The  bookkeeping  department  is  likely  to  be 
in  charge  of  a  man  with  many  subordinate  clerks  whose 
work  involves  little  technical  knowledge.  The  cor- 
respondence department  may  have  a  "head  stenogra- 
pher" and  many  stenographers  and  typists  of  medium 
capacity.  The  wage  paid  the  stenographers  and  typists 
in  factories,  as  indicated  by  the  returns  from  the  type- 
writer agencies,  is  fairly  good,  52.3  per  cent  being 
placed  at  $12  or  more.  Other  clerical  departments, 
concerned  primarily  with  the  sales,  shipments  and  orders 
of  the  product  made  by  the  factory,  utilize  many  young 
girls  with  little  education,  for  much  of  the  w^ork  involves 
little  more  equipment  than  ability  to  count,  copy  or 
record  figures.  The  large  number  of  poorly  paid  clerks 
and  copyists  who  record  purchases,  sales  and  ship- 
ments in  some  of  the  large  factories  do  not  appear 
through  the  typewriter  agencies  which  deal  only  with 
skilled  workers.  Opportunity  for  decided  advancement 
in  factory  offices  is  very  doubtful  for  the  woman.  She 
may,  as  in  the  case  of  the  selling  agencies,  become  the 
head  stenographer,  or  private  secretary  to  a  member  of 
the  firm,  but  there  has  been  little  opportunity  for 
administrative  or  executive  work  such  as  is  open  to  a 
man,  who  may  become  a  member  of  the  firm  or  board 
of  managers. 

Banks  and  trust  companies  demanding  the  greatest 
accuracy  pay  good  salaries,  more  than  two-thirds  of 
those  sent  from  the  typewriter  agencies  being  placed 
at  $12  or  more.  The  office  surroundings  in  these  places 
are  usually  excellent.  The  hours  of  work  are  often 
exceptionally  short.  There  seems,  however,  to  have 
been  little  opportunit}''  for  the  woman  in  a  bank  to 
advance  out  of  the  purely  clerical  work.^ 

Physicians  do  not,  as  a  rule,  require  the  services  of  a 

'  Department  of  Research,  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  Vocations  fur  the 
Trained  Woman,  Part  II,  page  120. 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE  SERVICE.  85 

skilled  stenographer  as  the  duties  consist  largely  of 
answering  the  telephone,  making  appointments,  sending 
out  the  bills,  and  other  general  office  work  of  that  kind. 
Very  few,  therefore,  are  sent  from  the  typewriter  agencies 
and  more  than  one-half  these  were  placed  at  less  than  SI 2. 
There  are,  however,  positions  in  this  field  demanding 
ability  and  special  training,  such  as  reporting  medical 
lectures,  conferences,  and  doing  amanuensis  work  in 
medical  journals,  treatises  and  books.  Such  positions 
are  comparatively  rare  and  call  for  special  competency 
in  handUng  medical  terms. 

The  salaries  paid  by  lawyers  are  relatively  good, 
almost  three-fifths  (59.7  per  cent)  of  the  women  sent 
from  the  typewriter  agencies  being  placed  at  $12  and 
above.  The  work  in  a  lawyer's  office  is  interesting 
because  of  its  variety,  although  it  is  often  taxing  and 
may  often  involve  overtime.  It  deals  with  an  immense 
variety  of  matter,  which  preserves  it  from  monotony 
and  makes  the  intelligent  performance  of  it  an  education 
in  itself.  With  a  progressive  lawyer,  the  opportunities 
for  the  stenographer  to  assume  responsibilities  and  to 
become  a  private  or  administrative  secretary  seem  very 
good.  The  position  of  official  court  reporter,  paying 
$1,500  to  $2,500  a  year,  also  may  be  the  result  of  training 
in  a  lawyer's  office,^  but  the  demand  for  women  from 
the  standpoint  of  numbers  is  small  and  the  work  very 
taxing  and  arduous,  involving  absolute  accuracy  and 
great  speed. 

Real  estate  offices  do  not  draw  a  large  number  of  the 
stenographers  placed  by  the  typewriter  agencies.  More 
than  half  of  those  placed,  however,  received  812  or  more. 
The  girl,  in  some  instances,  has  a  good  opportunity  to 
become  of  great  value  to  her  employer  and  occasionally 
to  grow  into  the  business.  In  the  small  office,  where  the 
agent  is  away  often,  the  stenographer  is  left  to  meet 
people  coming  into  the  office.  It  is  very  natural  that 
she  may  be  able  to  make  small  transactions  in  renting 

'  For  full  disouasion  see  Department  of  Research,  Women'a  Educational  and  Industrial 
Union,  Vocations  for  the  Trained  Woman,  Part  H,  page  122. 


86  WOMEN   IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

houses  or  apartments  or  in  interesting  a  prospective 
purchaser  in  property.  Two  j^oung  stenographers  in 
real  estate  offices  said  that  they  supplemented  their 
salaries  by  small  commissions  in  renting  property  and 
collecting  rents  from  buildings.  Occasionally  a  young 
woman  in  a  real  estate  office  works  up  an  independent 
business  of  her  own.  Miss  Martin  found  that  4  of  22 
women  carrying  on  real  estate  business  in  Boston  had 
begun  as  office  workers  in  real  estate  firms. ^ 

Occasionally  an  ambitious  girl  in  an  insurance  office 
may  have  opportunity  to  act  as  an  agent.  One  young 
woman  in  charge  of  a  branch  office  of  an  insurance 
company  in  Boston  began  as  a  stenographer  in  the 
main  office.  But  in  many  of  the  large  insurance  offices 
employing  hundreds  of  women,  the  work  is  highly  sub- 
divided and  the  worker  has  little  opportunity  to  take 
any  more  responsibility  than  that  of  the  special  clerical 
task  assigned  her. 

Social  agencies,  libraries  and  educational  institutions 
offer  congenial  surroundings  and  the  absence  of  the  rush 
and  strain  of  business  offices.  Large  institutions  occa- 
sionally offer  opportunity  to  the  stenographer  to  become 
a  recorder,  registrar,  secretary  of  a  department  or  to 
take  up  some  other  line  of  work  with  which  she  comes  in 
contact,  and  usually  provide  a  greater  variety  of  work 
than  in  the  ordinary  business  office.  The  work  of  these 
offices,  however,  usually  requires  a  comparatively  high 
educational  background.^ 

The  assistants  of  the  public  stenographers  are  usually 
very  poorly  paid,  but  they  are  often  young  girls  with 
no  previous  experience,  who  occasionally  spend  some 
time  with  a  public  stenographer,  regarding  this  experi- 
ence as  an  apprenticeship  in  the  occupation,  for  the 
immense  variety  of  the  work  in  these  offices  is  good 
training.  Many  of  the  places  involve  typing  only, 
with  no  use  of  stenography,  and  these  positions  may  be 

•For  full  discussion  see  Department  of  Research,  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial 
Union,  Vocations  for  the  Trained  Woman,  Part  II,  pages  124  et  aeg.  and  159. 


CHARACTER   OF  OFFICE  SERVICE.  87 

filled  with  less  skilled  workers  at  lower  wage.  Almost 
three-fourths  (71  per  cent)  of  those  sent  through  the 
typewriter  agencies  were  placed  at  less  than  SI 2,  and 
two-thirds  did  not  exceed  $9. 

Civil  Service  provides  its  own  list  of  eligibles,  who 
are  sifted  by  the  Civil  Service  examinations,  though 
some  temporary  workers  pass  through  the  typewriter 
agencies.  The  stenographers  and  typists  constitut- 
ing 37.8  per  cent  of  the  total  force  are  well  paid,  less 
than  one-fourth  (24.1  per  cent)  earning  less  than  $12 
and  more  than  two-fifths  (41.7  per  cent)  earning  $15 
or  more.  Clerks  constitute  the  larger  proportion, 
58.2  per  cent  of  the  495  women  in  office  service  under 
Civil  Service  regulations  in  Massachusetts.  The  admin- 
istrative and  executive  office  workers  called  ''clerks," 
who  have  more  the  character  of  secretaries,  are  char- 
acteristic of  Civil  Service.  More  than  one-half  (53.8 
per  cent)  of  the  288  clerks  employed  in  Civil  Service 
in  Massachusetts  earned  $15  or  more. 

While  the  type  of  business  in  which  the  office  worker 
is  employed  may  in  a  large  measure  restrict  or  promote 
the  opportunity  to  advance,  the  personal  attitude  and 
business  policy  of  the  employer  also  plaj's  an  important 
part.  Some  large  offices  are  so  regulated  that  advance- 
ment in  salary  is  based  on  length  of  service  only,  and 
the  work  is  so  subdivided  into  specific  tasks  that  each 
girl  has  little  or  no  opportunity  to  advance  in  position. 
One  large  corporation  in  Boston,  employing  several 
hundred  women  in  office  service,  has  a  regulated  wage 
scale  for  each  occupation.  All  women  working  as  clerks 
receive  an  initial  wage  of  $G  from  which  they  advance 
$1  a  year  until  they  reach  a  maximum  of  $10,  at  which 
salary  they  may  work  indefinitely.  Typists  are  em- 
ployed at  a  beginning  wage  of  $8  and  may  in  five  years 
be  earning  $12,  beyond  which  there  is  no  advancement. 
Stenographers  beginning  at  $10  reach  their  maximum  at 
$15.  Some  women  much  prefer  to  work  under  a  system 
of  this  kind,  whore  the  members  of  the  office  force  are 
not  in  competition  with  each  other  for  advancement. 


88  WOMEN   IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

While  the  work  involves  much  routine  and  calls  for  little 
personal  initiative,  the  advancement,  though  slow  and 
limited,  is  sure  and  known  in  advance.  Another  office, 
however,  which  also  employed  a  large  number  of  women, 
encouraged  individual  initiative.  The  head  of  each 
department  was  constantly  on  the  alert  to  discover 
special  ability  in  any  of  the  workers,  to  meet  it  with 
an  advance  in  salary,  and  to  put  the  worker  in  a  position 
where  her  special  abilities  would  be  of  most  service  to 
the  firm.  Promotion,  here,  was  on  merit  entirely,  so 
each  worker  was  stimulated  to  her  greatest  capacity 
for  achievement.  Because  office  work  is  merely  auxiliary, 
there  is  little  uniformity  in  the  policy  of  its  administra- 
tion. Shoe  manufacturers  or  cotton  manufacturers 
with  common  problems  and  interests  may  form  associa- 
tions and  try  to  work  out  uniform  methods  of  production, 
but  the  office  workers'  employers  range  from  the  college 
president  to  the  small  suburban  grocer. 

Occasionall}^,  an  employer  prefers  that  his  office 
assistants  do  absolutely  routine  work,  assuming  no 
responsibility  and  putting  little  or  no  initiative  or 
originality  into  their  work.  He  prefers  that  a  letter 
should  be  typed  as  it  is  dictated,  even  though  it  contains 
a  slip  in  grammar,  than  that  his  stenographer  should 
change  his  wording.  With  an  employer  of  this  kind, 
an  office  worker's  advancement  out  of  purely  routine 
work  is  almost  impossible,  nor  does  her  employer  desire 
anything  more  than  mere  technical  skill.  Other  employers 
wish  intelligent  young  women  with  good  judgment  and 
initiative,  so  they  can  suggest  quickly  and  briefly  the 
main  points  they  wish  covered  in  a  letter  or  a  report. 
The  stenographer  or  secretary  is  expected  to  phrase  it 
diplomatically,  courteously,  or  forcefully  as  the  case 
may  demand.  Such  a  worker  must  have  not  only 
technical  skill  but  good  judgment,  tact  and  a  knowledge 
of  business  relations. 

The  great  variation  in  the  kinds  of  business  in  which 
office  workers  are  employed  and  in  the  demands  of  each 
individual   employer   makes   the   occupation   of   office 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE  SERVICE.  89 

service  a  peculiarly  difficult  one  for  which  to  train  pro- 
spective workers.  For  instance,  a  stenographer  who  has 
worked  in  the  office  of  a  wholesale  manufacturer,  finds 
that  her  new  employer,  who  may  be  a  doctor  or  a  lawyer, 
uses  an  entirely  new  vocabulary.  The  school  can  pro- 
vide technical  training  in  a  comparatively  short  time 
but  the  general  intelligence  necessary  for  an  easy  adjust- 
ment to  the  offices  of  manufacturers,  distributors  and 
the  professional  men  is  the  result  of  a  comparatively 
broad  education.  The  broader  her  background  of 
general  education,  therefore,  the  more  easily  the  woman 
adjusts  herself  to  the  special  needs  of  a  particular  office, 
which  is  clearly  reflected  in  her  earning  capacity.^ 

While  conditions  in  particular  offices  may  or  may  not 
provide  favorable  opportunities  for  advancement,  the 
girl's  mental  equipment  and  her  own  personality  are 
the  real  determining  factors  in  her  success  or  failure. 
General  intelligence  and  education  are  fundamental 
requisites.  She  must  at  least  be  able  to  spell,  write, 
punctuate  and  use  good  grammar,  even  if  she  is  only 
a  clerical  worker.  She  must,  in  addition,  have  some 
technical  training  if  she  is  a  stenographer  or  typist. 
She  must  be  accurate  and  quick  with  figures  if  she  is  a 
bookkeeper,  auditor  or  accountant  and  finally  she  needs 
an  adequate  general  education  underlying  all  technical 
equipment,  if  she  advances  to  a  position  of  responsibility. 

Mental  ability  and  technical  skill  are,  however,  by 
no  means  the  only  requisite  for  the  woman  in  office 
service.  An  employer  invariably  demands  that  the 
woman  in  his  office  shall  have  "personality,"  though  he 
is  seldom  able  to  give  a  tangible  definition  of  this 
elusive  quality.  The  term  is  used  in  a  broad  sense  to 
cover  personal  appearance,  proper  attitude  toward  the 
work  of  the  office  and  fellow-workers  and  appreciation 
of  and  capacity  for  responsibilty, —  qualities  which  are 
requisite  for  business  success.  Personal  appearance  is 
the  first  test.  The  first  impression  created  as  the  girl 
enters  an  office  to  apply  for  a  position  often  determines 

»  See  Chapter  IV,  Wages,  page  130. 


90  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

the  result  of  the  interview.  But  obvious  as  may  be  the 
disastrous  effect  of  elaborate  and  inappropriate  dress  on 
the  mind  of  the  employer,  he  rarely,  if  ever,  mentions 
the  real  reason  for  his  not  hiring  this  applicant.  He 
may  say  that  he  will  let  her  know  later,  and  then  tele- 
phone to  the  typewriter  placement  agent  who  may  have 
sent  this  girl,  that  she  was  quite  impossible  on  account 
of  her  style  of  dress.  These  typewriter  placement 
agents  are  merely  a  medium  of  exchange  between  the 
applicant  and  the  employer  and  they,  like  the  employers, 
avoid  the  suggestions  and  criticisms  which  the  girl  should 
appreciate  but  almost  invariably  resents.  These  agents 
feel  that  it  is  the  place  of  the  school,  and  not  of  the 
agency,  to  instruct  a  girl  as  to  her  personal  appearance. 
Indeed,  the  most  tactful  suggestion  as  to  improvement  in 
dress  or  habits  is  usually  followed  by  the  girl's  announce- 
ment that  she  is  going  henceforth  to  another  agency. 
One  employer  has  summarized  an  efficient  stenographer 
as  one  with  adequate  technical  training,  a  knowledge 
of  appropriate  business  dress  and  a  serious  appreciation 
of  the  confidential  character  of  her  work.^  While  few 
employers  define  so  positively  the  characteristics  they 
require  of  their  office  workers,  the  complaints  of  the 
deficiencies  of  the  women  who  have  either  applied  to 
them  or  previously  worked  for  them  seem  to  corroborate 
this  definition  of  requisites. 

The  employers'  most  frequent  complaint  is  that  the 
girl  has  not  a  business-like  attitude  toward  her  work. 
She  takes  little  interest  in  the  business  of  the  firm  and 
performs  the  tasks  assigned  her  in  a  routine  way,  with 
little  grasp  of  its  relation  to  the  business.  She  is  very 
apt  to  feel  that  her  associates  must  not  only  be  co- 
operative fellow  workers,  but  intimate  friends,  and 
objects  to  working  with  women  of  different  nationality 
or  radically  different  religion.  There  may  be  several 
reasons  for  the  girl's  lack  of  a  business-like  attitude 
toward  her  work.     Unlike  the  man  entering  an  office, 

'  Flynn,  Edward  F.,  The  Stenographer  in  Stone  and  Webster's  Public  Service  Journal, 
April,  1914. 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE  SERVICE.  91 

she  has  httle  opportunity  to  work  up  into  the  business 
and  so  is  less  interested  in  it.  As  a  rule,  she  does  not 
plan  on  a  definite  business  career,  as  does  the  man,  and 
so  lacks  this  stimulus  to  interest  in  the  work.  Since 
the  business  world  is  a  relatively  new  field  of  work  for 
women,  it  is  perhaps  not  strange  that  they  have  carried 
into  it  much  of  the  easy,  social  routine  spirit  in  which 
their  mothers  and  grandmothers  conducted  their  house- 
work. 

An  appreciation  of  the  confidential  character  of  her 
position  is  probably  one  of  the  most  important  requisites, 
yet  it  is  most  difficult  to  impress  this  upon  the  young  girl. 
Information  concerning  her  employer's  most  confidential 
business  affairs  may  pass  through  her  hands  in  corre- 
spondence. It  is  difficult  for  her  to  reaUze  that  this 
information  is  not  hers  to  remember  nor  to  repeat  and 
that  a  violation  of  this  confidence  is  often  fatal  to  her 
business  success.  For  instance,  one  girl  was  proud  of 
the  fact  that  her  employer  was  on  intimate  terms  with 
a  prominent  financial  and  political  leader,  and  while  at 
lunch  with  her  friend  mentioned  the  fact  that  she  took 
a  letter  for  him  which  was  all  about  the  railroad  situa- 
tion. This  was  overheard,  reported  to  her  employer, 
and  the  girl  lost  her  position. 

The  requirement  of  proper  business  dress  is  not  easily 
met  by  the  young  girl  in  the  office  for  two  reasons: 
first,  because  she  may  have  no  means  of  knowing  what 
is  suitable,  and  second,  because  the  simple  and  neat 
style  of  dress  is  more  difficult  to  achieve  on  a  limited 
income  than  a  cheaply  elaborate  style.  The  majority  of 
girls  realize  the  importance  of  a  good  appearance,  but 
many,  having  no  opportunity  to  acquire  right  standards, 
resort  to  showy  clothes,  which  hinder  instead  of  aid  them 
in  securing  the  coveted  position. 

A  vital  interest  in  the  business  in  which  she  is  engaged, 
discretion  in  speaking  of  it  outside  the  office,  appropriate 
business  dress,  and  tact  and  graciousness  of  manner  in 
dealing  with  her  business  associates,  maybe  taken  as  some 
of  the  prime  factors  in  the  girl's  ''business  personahty." 


92  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 

Training  in  this  business  personality  is,  in  many- 
instances,  an  asset  which  the  home  is  unable  to  give  the 
girl,  especially  the  girl  who  needs  it  most.  Less  than 
one-third  of  the  girls  in  office  work  studied  from  the  day 
high  schools  came  from  the  families  of  business  or  pro- 
fessional men.^  This  means  that  in  many  instances 
the  girl  has  little  idea  of  the  social  demands  of  the 
business  w^orld  when  she  starts  to  work.  Yet  these 
very  requisites  are  most  important  in  her  gaining 
and  keeping  a  position.  If  the  school  attempts  to 
prepare  the  girl  for  her  work,  training  in  business  ethics 
and  relations  must  be  developed  as  a  part  of  the  com- 
mercial course. 

The  introduction  of  labor  and  time  saving  machinery 
is  revolutionizing  office  work.  Work  in  offices,  as  in 
the  industrial  field,  is  becoming  more  subdivided  and 
standardized.  Here,  as  in  industry,  it  is  inevitable 
that  after  a  process  has  become  simple,  detached  from 
the  composite  whole  and  given  to  specialized  labor,  it 
is  sooner  or  later  taken  over  by  machinery.  The  intro- 
duction of  machinery  into  office  work  has  necessitated 
continual  readjustment  in  the  number,  the  technical 
requisites  and  the  personnel  of  the  office  force. 

The  typewriter,  the  first  important  machine  for  doing 
office  work,  was  introduced  in  the  seventies,  at  the 
beginning  of  an  era  of  great  business  activity.  Although 
this  machine  was  a  labor-saving  device,  the  number  in 
office  service  increased  with  tremendous  strides  during 
the  next  few  decades,^  because  of  increase  in  business 
demands.  It  has,  however,  changed  the  personnel  of 
the  office  force  by  calling  for  a  large  number  of  operators 
with  special  training  and  skill,  and  this  demand  has  been 
largely  filled  by  women,  who  constituted  more  than 
four-fifths  of  the  stenographers  and  typists  employed 
in  the  United  States  in  1910.  The  typewriter  has  come 
into  such  general  use  that  there  is  hardly  an  office,  no 
matter  how  small,  without  one,  while  there  are  many 
hundreds  used  in  the  large  offices.     The  typewriter  is 

>  See  Chapter  V,  Table  40.  page  103.  *  See  Chapter  I,  page  1. 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE   SERVICE.  93 

the  one  machine  in  office  service  which  may  be  said  to 
be  in  universal  use.  Moreover,  it  is  used  by  many 
private  individuals  for  their  correspondence. 

Comptometers,  adding  and  billing  machines  are  more 
recent  innovations,  which  have  not  yet  come  into  such 
universal  use  because  they  meet  the  demands  of  a  more 
specialized  kind  of  work.  They  have  taken  over  much 
of  the  specialized  parts  of  bookkeeping,  making  it 
possible  for  clerks  with  comparatively  little  general 
background  and  even  little  technical  education  to 
accomplish  in  less  time  processes  that  formerly  were 
done  by  highly  trained  bookkeepers.  These  machines 
are  thus  having  much  the  effect  of  machines  introduced 
into  industry  —  they  relieve  the  skilled,  intelligent 
worker  from  much  of  the  monotonous  routine  work  but 
also  call  into  service  a  number  of  machine  operators  of 
limited  ability.  These  machines  provide  opportunity 
for  young  women  of  limited  education  and  ability  to 
earn  a  fairly  good  wage  and  to  work  under  good  condi- 
tions. The  manipulation  of  the  machines  can  be 
learned  quickly  and  easily,  and  the  chief  requisite  of 
the  operator  is  speed. 

Some  of  the  more  progressive  typewriter  manufac- 
turers are  combining  an  adding  or  a  billing  attachment 
with  the  typewriter  which  not  only  has  the  advantage 
of  combining  several  processes,  but  involves  less  physical 
strain  on  the  operator  because  of  the  better  mechanical 
arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the  machine.  Machines 
for  doing  even  more  simple  processes,  such  as  addresso- 
graphs,  devices  for  counting,  sealing  and  stamping  or 
opening  envelopes  have  been  introduced  in  some  of  the 
large  offices  and  reduced  the  number  of  people  necessary 
to  do  this  primarily  manual  work. 

The  stenotype,  which  is  designed  to  replace  shorthand 
done  by  hand,  has  recently  been  put  upon  tlie  market. 
In  appearance  it  resembles  a  typewriter,  though  much 
smaller  and  with  fewer  lettered  keys.  Letters  are  used 
instead  of  the  ordinary  stenographic  symbols  and  the 
keys  are  so  arranged  that  a  whole  word  may  be  written 


94  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 

at  one  stroke.  The  operator  takes  dictation  directly 
on  the  machine  and  later  transcribes  her  notes  upon  the 
typewriter.  The  advantages  of  the  machine  are  the 
greater  speed,  the  simpUcity,  accuracy  and  legibility 
of  the  notes,  the  shorter  time  involved  in  learning  to 
operate  it  and  also  the  ease  with  which  all  stenographers 
may  read  one  another's  notes.  Although  the  steno- 
type  does  away  with  the  necessity  of  a  knowledge  of 
shorthand  writing,  the  operator  must  acquire  the 
technical  skill  of  the  new  process  called  stenotypy. 
At  present,  however,  the  stenotype  is  sold  only  to 
individual  operators  and  its  expense  prohibits  a  wide 
sale  among  young  girls  just  starting  out.  One  public 
high  school  is  testing  its  possibilities  by  training  girls 
in  its  use,  but  it  is  hard  to  predict  the  future  effect  on 
the  training  for  office  service.  Few  public  commercial 
schools  have  adopted  the  stenotype  yet,  but  several 
small  private  schools  are  devoted  to  this  particular  kind 
of  technical  training. 

Another  machine,  the  dictaphone,  which  has  been 
recently  introduced  and  is  more  widely  used,  also 
eliminates  the  necessity  of  stenography.  It  involves 
the  same  principle  as  in  the  graphophone.  The  dictator 
speaks  into  the  machine  and  his  words  are  registered 
on  plates  resembling  hollow  cylinders.  The  employer 
can,  therefore,  dictate  his  letters  at  any  time  and  under 
any  conditions  he  may  choose  and  turn  over  the  records 
to  his  office  force  later.  The  record  can  be  eradicated 
and  the  plate  used  again,  which  is  an  important  con- 
sideration from  the  standpoint  of  expense.  The  opera- 
tion of  this  machine  requires  little  technical  ability.  An 
intelligent  girl  may  learn,  in  a  few  minutes,  the  mechan- 
ism of  the  machine.  Transmitters  are  held  to  her  ears 
and  she  types  the  words  she  hears  in  the  dictaphone  as 
if  she  were  taking  her  employer's  personal  dictation 
directly  on  the  typewriter.  The  speed  of  the  dictation 
may  be  regulated  by  a  simple  device  and  any  portion 
may  be  repeated.  An  erroneous  conclusion  has  some- 
times been  drawn  that  with  the  use  of  the  dictaphone 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE   SERVICE.  95 

less  skilled  workers  may  be  utilized.  Emploj-ers,  who 
have  used  the  machine,  however,  say  that  while  special 
technical  skill  in  shorthand  wTiting  is  unnecessary,  the 
operator  of  the  dictaphone  may  have  need  of  greater 
general  intelligence  than  the  stenographer.  Since  the 
operator  of  the  machine  is  not  present  when  the  letters 
are  dictated,  she  has  no  opportunity  to  ask  any  ques- 
tions about  the  material  and  must  often  use  her  own 
judgment  in  questions  which  arise  concerning  it.  She 
must  also  be  able  to  punctuate  and  to  paragraph  her 
copy,  as  she  types  with  no  previous  knowledge  of  the 
general  structure  of  the  sentence  which  is  coming. 

The  ultimate  effect  of  the  stenotype  and  the  dicta- 
phone cannot  yet  be  foretold.  A  general  use  of  either 
or  both  of  them  would  render  the  technical  ability  to 
write  in  shorthand  obsolete  for  practical  purposes,  but 
as  yet,  they  are  not  in  common  enough  use  to  affect 
the  demand  for  stenographers  to  any  perceptible  extent. 
The  question  of  expense  also  will  affect  their  universal 
introduction  into  the  small  offices  for  some  time  to  come. 

Just  as  the  introduction  of  machinery  into  industrial 
work  caused  distress  among  the  laborers  until  they  had 
become  adjusted  to  the  new  conditions  and  redistrib- 
uted to  meet  new  demands,  so  the  introduction  of 
office  machinery  works  hardship  in  some  individual 
cases.  Office  machinery  has  taken  over  many  processes 
once  done  by  individual  hand  and  brain  and  has  rendered 
useless  much  patiently  acquired  technical  ability.  The 
girl  who  goes  into  the  business  world,  armed  only  with 
some  technical  skill,  may  at  any  time  be  thrown  out 
of  her  position  by  some  machine  which  can  do  her  work 
better  and  faster  than  she.  There  are,  however,  no 
machines  to  take  the  place  of  the  well-developed  human 
brain.  As  machinery  progressively  takes  over  technical 
and  mechanical  processes,  the  office  workers  nmst  be 
prepared  to  assume  new  and  more  responsible  duties. 
The  ability  to  progress  ahead  of  machinery  rather  than 
to  be  displaced  by  it  can  come  only  by  a  broad  develop- 
ment of  the  intellect  through  a  general  education. 


96 


WOMEN   IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


Women  in  office  service,  as  those  in  other  occupations, 
find  their  positions  in  various  haphazard  ways,  wasteful 
to  both  employer  and  employee. 

Friends  and  relatives  play  an  important  part  in 
acquainting  the  girl  with  vacancies  and  in  securing 
positions  for  her.  More  than  one-third  (39.3  per  cent) 
of  a  total  of  1,419  positions  reported  on  were  secured 
through    this    personal    relationship.       This    personal 

Table  20, —  Showing  Means  of  Securing  Work  in  Office  Service. 


Office  Workers  in  Each  Occupation 
Securing  Work  by  Means  Specified. 

Total. 

Means  of  Securinq 
Work. 

STENOGRAPHERS 
AND    TYPISTS. 

BOOK- 
KEEPERS. 

clerks. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Relative  or  Friend 

297 

104 

215 

12 

24 

42 

45 

141 

33.8 

11.8 

24.4 

1.4 

2.7 

4.8 

5,1 

16.0 

69 

14 

3 

4 
14 
12 

1 
8 

55.2 
11.2 

2.4 
3.2 
11.2 
9.6 
0.8 
6.4 

191 
60 
11 
6 
69 
30 
34 
13 

46.1 
14.5 
2,7 
1.4 
16.7 
7.3 
8.2 
3.1 

557 

178 

229 

22 

107 

84 

80 

162 

39.3 
12.5 

Typewriter  Agency 

State  or  Social  Agency .... 
Application 

16.1 
1.6 
7.5 
5.9 

5.6 

School 

11.5 

Total 

880 

100.0 

125 

100.0 

414 

100.0 

1.419 

100  0 

method  of  securing  employment,  therefore,  predominates 
in  this  more  skilled  occupation  as  in  industrial  work,^ 
and  must,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  mean  a  choice  of 
position  with  little  consideration  of  the  individual's 
suitability  for  the  place  or  of  the  opportunity  which 
the  position  affords  for  personal  development  and  pro- 
motion. The  girl  who  lives  next  door  may  work  in  the 
office  of  a  candy  factory  and  hear  that  one  of  the 
stenographers  is  to  be  married.  She  immediately  informs 
her  neighbor  of  the  opening  and  suggests  her  name  to  her 

'  See  Van  Kleeck,  Mary,  Women  in  the  Bookbinding  Trade,  page  125,  "  Friends  and 
Relatives,  44  per  cent";  also  Allinson,  May,  Dressmaking  as  a  Trade  for  Women,  "Friends 
and  Relatives,  33.5  i>er  cent." 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE   SERVICE.  97 

employer.  This  new  applicant  may  come  from  a  family 
of  some  culture  and  education  and  thus  have  a  back- 
ground which  would  make  her  a  valuable  worker  in  an 
educational  or  professional  office.  Yet  her  personal 
background  finds  httle  opportunity  for  expression  in 
her  new  found  position.  Some  employers,  also,  prefer 
to  secure  new  workers  through  those  already  employed 
in  the  office,  feeling  that  the  new  worker  is  thus  vouched 
for  by  one  he  already  knows. 

Applications  and  answers  to  advertisements  play  a 
less  important  part  in  ofiice  service  than  in  the  industries. 
"Applied"  or  "ads"  are,  however,  a  very  precarious 
method  of  securing  employment,  particularly  for  the 
young  girl,  yet  one-seventh  of  the  positions  reported 
upon  by  the  girls  secured  through  the  schools  were 
obtained  by  this  means.  More  than  one-eighth  (13.4 
per  cent)  of  the  total  number  of  positions  reported  by 
all  workers  were  secured  by  this  means.  The  stenog- 
raphers and  typists  resort  to  "ads"  or  "apphcations" 
less  than  the  clerks.  Almost  one-fourth  (24  per  cent) 
of  the  414  positions  reported  by  clerks,  while  but  7.5 
per  cent  of  the  880  positions  reported  by  stenographers, 
were  secured  through  this  means.  Not  only  from  the 
standpoint  of  economic  adjustment  is  this  means  of 
securing  employment  to  be  regretted,  but  it  also  exposes 
the  girls  to  most  undesirable  influences  and  sometimes 
even  dangerous  situations  from  fraudulent  advertise- 
ments. 

The  clerks,  who  are  the  least  skilled  workers  in  office 
service,  are,  therefore,  not  only  handicapped  by  inade- 
quate education,  decreased  opportunities  for  a  good 
wage  and  position,  but,  also,  by  fewer  organized  means 
of  securing  employment.  Almost  one-half  (46. 1  per 
cent)  of  the  414  positions  reported  by  the  clerks  were 
obtained  through  relatives  and  friends,  16.7  per  cent 
through  applying  at  offices  for  a  position  and  7.3  per  cent 
through  answering  "ads."  In  other  words,  almost 
three-fourths  (70.1  per  cent)  of  these  positions  were 
secured  through  absolutely  haphazard  and  unorganized 


98  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

methods.  Almost  15  per  cent  were  secured  through 
the  paid  agency  where  the  fee  causes  an  important 
reduction  of  the  comparatively  small  weekly  wage. 

The  stenographers  and  typists  have  two  means  of 
getting  into  touch  with  demand  not  open  to  the  less 
skilled  workers,  the  typewriter  agencies  and  the  agencies 
maintained  by  the  technical  school  in  which  so  many 
were  trained.  Five  of  the  largest  typewriter  companies 
in  Boston  maintain  placement  bureaus  for  stenographers 
and  typists  in  connection  with  their  sales  offices.  Other 
smaller  companies  occasionally  supply  owners  of  their 
machines  with  operators  but  maintain  no  established 
agency.  No  fees  are  charged,  and  as  the  companies 
are  in  close  touch  with  the  business  demands,  the 
stenographer  and  typist  naturally  reports  to  these 
agencies  when  seeking  work.  One-fourth  (24.4  per  cent) 
of  the  positions  reported  by  stenographers  and  typists 
were  secured  through  typewriter  agencies.  For  business 
reasons,  these  agencies  must  supply  employers  with 
competent  operators,  so  they  require  a  test  for  accuracy 
and  speed  of  100  words  of  stenographic  notes  a  minute 
before  registering  an  applicant.  The  placement  agent 
is  a  woman  of  mature  judgment  and  business  experience, 
who  interviews  the  girls,  gives  the  examination  and 
registers  for  positions  those  who  have  satisfactorily 
passed  the  test.  Each  company  maintains  a  room  with 
several  typewriters,  on  which  any  girl  may  practice  in 
order  that  she  may  acquire  or  keep  up  her  speed  in 
typing,  while  waiting  for  a  position.  While  these 
agencies  are  maintained  primarily  to  promote  the  sales 
of  the  machines  of  the  company,  they  perform  a  very 
much  needed  social  service  and  in  some  cases  in  a  most 
efficient  manner.  One  agency  is  particularly  careful  of 
the  places  to  which  applicants  are  directed  for  positions. 
If  a  girl  is  placed  with  an  employer  whose  reputation  is 
not  known  to  the  agent,  a  salesman  is  sent  with  her 
when  she  goes  to  take  the  position  or  shortly  afterward, 
ostensibly  to  look  over  the  machine  but  in  reality  to 
investigate  the  character  of  the  office.     If  an  unpleasant 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE   SERVICE.  99 

situation  arises  and  the  girl  wishes  to  leave  a  place  a 
salesman  is  sent  with  her,  if  she  desires,  to  get  her 
belongings.  Other  agents  with  less  co-operation  from 
the  management  must  rely  on  sending  older  or  more 
mature  girls  to  offices  whose  reputation  is  unknown  or 
doubtful. 

Some  few  stenographers  and  typists  say  they  think 
that  a  paid  agency  takes  more  active  interest  in  securing 
positions  for  them  because  that  is  the  primary  interest 
of  the  office.  Those  who  cannot  pass  the  test  of  the 
typewriter  agencies  also  must  often  resort  to  this  means. 
One-eighth  of  the  total  number  of  positions  in  office 
service  was  secured  in  this  way,  which  seems  to  be  a  more 
important  aid  for  the  clerks  than  for  the  more  skilled 
workers.  These  agencies  are  maintained  for  profit, 
and  charge  a  fee  of  one  full  week's  salary  for  a  permanent 
position  (i.  e.  one  lasting  six  weeks  or  more)  and  one- 
sixth  of  each  week's  salary  for  a  position  lasting  less 
than  six  weeks. 

The  state  maintains  a  free  employment  agency  which 
last  year  registered  527  office  workers.  Since  office 
service  is  only  one  of  the  many  occupations  in  which 
the  State  Bureau  places  workers,  little  seems  to  have 
been  done  in  investigation  of  the  offices  to  which  the 
girls  are  sent  or  in  careful  adjustment  of  the  applicant 
to  the  position. 

Although  more  than  a  tenth  of  the  total  number  of 
workers  were  placed  through  the  schools  in  which  they 
were  trained,  only  a  neghgible  number  of  these  were 
placed  by  public  high  schools.  The  private  commercial 
schools  and  colleges  have  long  realized  the  advertising 
value  of  placing  their  graduates  in  good  positions,  so 
they  usually  have  their  own  agencies  for  the  placement 
of  graduates.  Sixteen  per  cent  of  the  positions  reported 
by  stenographers  and  typists  were  secured  through  their 
training  school.  Some  of  these  schools  have  been 
established  for  a  great  many  years  and  have  a  wide 
acquaintance  among  business  houses.  ]Man\'  of  their 
graduates  have  grown  into  positions  of  trust  as  managers 


100  WOMEN   IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

of  offices  or  members  of  firms  and  they  naturally  send 
back  to  their  schools  for  their  office  assistants.  Because 
of  this  wide  acquaintance,  these  schools  are  able  to  place 
their  graduates  advantageously  in  offices  whose  reputa- 
tion is  known  to  them. 

The  pupils  of  the  public  high  schools  have  not  this 
advantage  in  securing  positions.  Only  three  of  the  589 
positions  reported  by  310  girls  studied  from  the 
schools  had  been  secured  through  the  schools.  A 
beginning  has  been  made  by  at  least  two  Boston  schools 
toward  systematically  placing  and  keeping  a  record  of 
their  graduates.  Individual  teachers  in  other  schools 
sometimes  try  to  secure  positions  for  their  students 
because  of  their  own  personal  interest  in  them.  The 
Boston  Placement  Bureau,  jointly  maintained  by  the 
School  Committee  and  the  Women's  Municipal  League, 
which  is  devoted  to  securing  positions  for  the  public 
school  children,  deals  mainly  with  the  grammar  school 
child  and  places  comparatively  few  in  office  service. 
With  little  supervision  or  guidance,  therefore,  14.2  per 
cent  of  the  positions  reported  by  the  310  girls  from  the 
schools  w^ere  secured  by  answering  advertisements  or 
applying  at  offices.  Ten  per  cent  were  secured  through 
employment  bureaus  and  the  same  proportion  through 
typewriter  agencies.  Almost  one-half  (42.6  per  cent), 
however,  were  obtained  through  the  influence  of  rela- 
tives or  friends.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the 
young  school  girl  has  to  resort  to  these  unregulated 
methods  of  obtaining  a  position.  Answering  advertise- 
ments and  applying  at  offices  for  positions  are  pre- 
carious means  for  any  woman  to  find  work,  but  they 
are  especially  unfortunate  for  the  young  girl  fresh  from 
the  class  room.  These  methods  are,  however,  more 
frequently  employed  by  the  young  girl  than  by  the  older 
woman  whose  longer  business  experience  has  opened 
other  opportunities  to  her. 

The  school,  which  has  trained  the  girl,  has  more 
knowledge  of  her  special  needs  and  capacity  than 
any  one  else.     It  should  have  more  interest  in  placing 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE  SERVICE.  101 

her  in  a  position  where  her  training  will  be  of  most 
use  to  her  and  to  the  community.  The  new  problem 
and  responsibility  of  the  school  is  to  become  equally 
well  acquainted  with  the  employer  and  the  office 
and  its  needs  and  demands.  While  the  task  of  plac- 
ing advantageously  the  thousands  of  girls  who  gradu- 
ate each  year  from  public  commercial  high  schools 
would  be  tremendous,  the  assumption  of  this  respon- 
sibility by  the  schools  would  have  many  desirable 
results  which  would  benefit  all  concerned.  First,  it 
would  necessitate  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
child  and  its  personal  background.  Such  an  acquaint- 
ance might  well  result  in  careful  sifting  and  direction 
of  the  prospective  workers  in  accordance  with  their 
particular  abilities.  Second,  the  school  must  become 
much  more  intimately  acquainted  with  the  business 
office,  its  methods  and  demands  and  with  individual 
employers.  Third,  such  an  intimate  acquaintance 
with  both  pupil  and  employer  must  react  on  the  cur- 
riculum and  methods  used  in  the  school  and  tend  to 
make  the  commercial  training  vocational  in  its  true 
sense. 

The  instability  of  the  worker  which  is  such  a  serious 
problem  in  industry  is  much  less  characteristic  of  office 
service.^  Almost  three-fourths  (73.2  per  cent)  of  the 
310  girls  studied  from  the  schools  had  held  no  more  than 
two  positions,  although  more  than  two-fifths  of  these 
girls  had  a  working  experience  of  two  to  five  years. 
A  similar  stability  was  found  in  222  stenographers  and 
typists  studied  in  the  offices,  for  almost  two-thirds 
(61.2  per  cent)  of  these  had  not  held  more  than  two 
positions,  although  more  than  two-thirds  of  the  total 
number  (69.1  per  cent)  had  worked  more  than  two  years. 

Shifting  from  one  position  to  another  in  the  industries 
is  usually  largely  ascribed  to  industrial  or  trade  con- 
ditions. Almost  three-fourths  (72.5  per  cent)  of  the 
reasons  for  leaving  positions  given  by  workers  in  the 

>  Department   of    Research,   Women's  Educational   and   Industrial   Union,   Allinson, 
May,  Dr«t»making  as  a  Trade  for  Women,  Chapter  IV. 


102  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

bookbinding  trade  were  unsatisfactory  trade  conditions,^ 
and  in  the  more  skilled  trade  of  dressmaking  about 
two-thirds  of  the  reasons  for  leaving  places  were  ascribed 
to  this  cause."  In  office  service,  change  of  position  is 
less  often  due  to  unsatisfactory  conditions  of  work  than 
in  industry.  A  little  more  than  one-half  (57.2  per  cent) 
of  the  821  reasons  given  by  workers  in  offices,  and  about 
the  same  proportion  (51.5  per  cent)  of  the  710  reasons 
given  by  applicants  to  the  State  Free  Employment 
Bureau,  were  ascribed  to  this  cause. ^ 

Office  workers  are  unique  in  the  large  proportion, 
who  change  positions  for  advancement.  More  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  reasons  for  change  of  positions  given  by 
women  in  this  occupation  were  for  obtaining  a  better 
position.  This  is  significant  of  the  better  opportunity 
for  advancement  in  this  vocation  than  in  the  trades, 
where  in  bookbinding,  one-eighth,  and  in  dressmaking, 
less  than  one-tenth,  changed  position  for  advancement. 

Temporary  work  is  a  very  important  factor  for  con- 
sideration in  this  occupation,  one-fifth  (21.9  per  cent)  of 
the  reasons  given  for  leaving  being  that  the  positions  were 
only  temporary.  The  accompanying  chart  shows  the 
very  large  number  of  temporary  places  in  stenography 
and  typewriting  filled  by  four  typewriter  agencies  during 
the  year.  There  are  several  causes  for  this  large  number 
of  temporary  places.  Practically  all  industry  and 
business  have  periods  of  rush  and  periods  of  slack  work. 
Office  workers,  although  in  a  less  degree  than  industrial 
workers,  feel  the  effect  of  this,  for  it  is  the  temporary 
worker  who  bears  the  brunt  of  seasonal  rush  and  demand. 
The  regular  force  in  office  service  does  not  fluctuate  as 
in  industry.  Many  offices  employ  extra  assistants  for 
their  periods  of  rush  work,  with  the  understanding  that 
the  position  is  only  temporary.  The  almost  universal 
custom  of  giving  stenographers  one  to  two  weeks'  vaca- 

'  Van  Kleeck,  Mary,  Women  in  the  Bookbinding  Trade,  paRO  112. 

'  Department  of  Research,  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  Aliinson, 
May,  Dressmakino  as  a  Trade  for  VVoTnen,  Chapter  IV. 

'  Trade  conditions. —  Temporary  position,  dissatisfied  with  working  conditions,  firm 
failed,  slack  work. 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE   SERVICE. 


103 


104 


WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


tion  also  calls  for  a  large  number  of  temporary  or  sub- 
stitute workers  during  the  summer  months.  July  and 
August,  the  months  for  vacations,  show  an  unduly  large 
number  of  temporary  positions  filled  by  the  typewriter 
agencies.  One-fourth  of  8,G78  positions  reported  by  the 
four  typewriter  agencies  during  the  past  year  were  filled 
in  July  and  August. 

Table  21. —  Showing  Reasons  for  Leaving  Positions. > 


Office  Workers  from  Each  Source 
Giving  Specified  Reason. 

Reasons  for  Leaving. 

SCHOOL. 

OFFICES. 

FREE 

EMPLOYMENT 

BUREAU. 

Total, 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Advancement 

94 
94 
43 

4.5 

6 

11 
3 

4 

17 

3 

29.4 
29.4 
13.4 

14.1 

1.9 

3.4 
0.9 
1.3 
5.3 
0.9 

112 
81 
76 

88 

32 
4 
18 
38 
34 

22.4 
16.2 
15.2 

17.6 

3.6 

6.4 
0.7 
3.6 
7.5 
6.8 

207 
161 

38 

96 
26 

70 
6 
45 
49 
12 

29.2 

22.7 

5.4 

13.5 

3.7 

9.9 
0.8 
0.3 
6.9 
1.6 

413 
336 

:     157 

229 
50 

113 
13 
67 

104 
49 

26.9 

Temporary  position 

Dissatisfied     with    working 
conditions.' 

Firm  failed,  moved,  changed 
offices,  etc. 

To  go  to  school,  not  enough 
education,  change  of  occu- 
pation. 

Slack  work 

21.9 
10.3 

15.0 

3.3 

7.4 

0.8 

Moved  or  too  far  to  work.. .  . 

4.4 
6.8 

3.2 

Total 

320 

100.0 

501 

1 

100.0 

710 

100.0 

1,531 

100.0 

■  From  reports  of  girls  visited  from  the  schools  and  in  the  offices  and  from  the  records 
of  the  Free  Employment  Agency. 
'  Long  hours,  low  paj-,  "didn't  like." 


The  very  large  number  of  temporary  positions  filled 
by  the  typewriter  companies  cannot,  however,  be 
accounted  for  by  these  reasons.  More  than  three-fourths 
(78.1  per  cent)  of  the  8,G78  positions  were  recorded  as 
temporary.  In  comparison  with  statistics  secured  from 
the  girls  at  work  in  offices,  this  proportion  seems  unduly 
large.     The  large  number  of  temporary  places  reported 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE  SERVICE.  105 

may  be  partially  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  many 
employers  take  in  new  workers  on  a  temporary  basis, 
sifting  out  the  efficient  workers  for  permanent  positions. 
Often  a  girl  may  start  in  her  position  as  a  temporary 
worker  and  then  be  kept  permanently.  It  is  impossible 
to  judge  what  proportion  of  these  "temporary"  places 
reported  by  the  typewriter  companies  becomes  perma- 
nent or  how  many  of  the  positions  left  because  they  were 
''only  temporary"  were  really  left  because  the  employer 
had  tried  the  girl  out  on  a  temporary  basis  and  found 
her  unsatisfactory  for  a  permanent  position. 

The  hours  of  employment  and  the  conditions  of  work 
are  factors  of  prime  importance  in  determining  the 
desirability  of  any  occupation  as  a  vocation  for  women. 
In  Massachusetts,  woman's  work  in  nearly  all  pursuits 
is  limited  to  fifty-four  hours  a  week.  A  recent  opinion 
of  the  Attorney-General  of  the  Commonwealth  exempts 
women  tw^enty-one  years  of  age  or  more  employed  as 
bookkeepers,  stenographers  or  in  clerical  positions  from 
this  limitation.  In  spite  of  this  lack  of  restriction,  a 
study  of  the  occupation  reveals  a  prevaihng  shorter 
working  day  than  is  found  in  many  other  occupations 
for  women.  In  many  industries  the  working  day  is 
ten  hours  long  and  the  working  hours  of  the  week  are 
seldom  less  than  the  legal  limit.  Saleswomen  average 
during  the  year  from  forty-seven  and  two-thirds  to  fifty- 
three  and  one-third  hours  a  week.^ 

More  than  nine-tenths  (93.5  per  cent)  of  the  834 
women  in  office  service  who  reported  on  the  length  of 
their  w^orking  week  were  employed  less  than  fifty 
hours,  four  hours  less  than  the  legal  limit.  More  than 
half  (53.8  per  cent)  worked  less  than  forty-five  hours, 
ten  hours  less  than  the  maximum  prescribed  by  law, 
which  means,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  a  seven  or 
seven  and  one-half  hour  day  with  a  short  Saturday. 

The  several  occupations  in  office  service  show  an 
interesting  divergence  in  the  length  of  the  working 
week.     Clerks,  who  are  commonly  the  least  skilled  and 

'  Massachusetts  Commission  on  Minimum  Wage  Boards,  Report  of,  1912,  page  93. 


106 


WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 


less  well-paid,  show  the  largest  proportions  (64.4  per 
cent),  working  forty-five  hours  a  week  or  more,  not 
because  the  clerks  are  kept  working  longer  than  the 
stenographers  in  any  particular  office,  but  because 
large  numbers  of  clerks  are  employed  in  establishments 
which  have  a  long  working  day,  such  as  retail  stores 
and  factories. 

Stenographers  averaged  a  shorter  working  week,  almost 
one-half  (44  per  cent)  working  less  than  forty  hours  a 
week,  which  meant  a  seven  hour  day  with  a  short 
Saturday.     A  little  more  than  one-fifth  (22.5  per  cent) 

Table  22. —  Showing  Weekly  Hours  of  Work  in  Office  Service. 


Office  Workers  Employed  Specified  Hours. 

Weekly  Hours. 

CLERKS. 

STENOG- 
RAPHERS. 

BOOK- 
KEEPERS. 

SECRE- 
TARIES. 

Total. 

B 

a 
O 

Pi 

<u 
O 

(2 

1 

d 
O 

PL, 

a 

3 

a 
U 

PM 

1 

3 

6 

Leas  than  40  hours 

40  hours  and  less  than  45, 
45  hours  and  less  than  50, 

74 

32 

165 

27 

24.8 

10.8 

55.4 

9.0 

182 
93 

114 
25 

44.0 

22.5 

27.5 

6.0 

9 
19 
45 

2 

12.0 

25.3 

60.0 

2.7 

37 
3 
7 

78.7 

6.4 

14.9 

302 

147 

331 

54 

36.2 

17.6 

39.7 

6.5 

Total 

298 

100.0 

414 

100.0 

75 

100.0 

47 

100.0 

834 

100.0 

worked  from  forty  to  forty-five  hours  a  week,  which 
meant  a  seven  hour  day  six  days  of  the  week  or  an 
eight  hour  day  and  a  short  Saturday.  More  than  one- 
fourth  worked  from  forty-five  to  fifty  hours,  comprising 
mainly  the  workers  who  were  employed  eight  hours  six 
days  a  week.  A  very  few,  6  per  cent,  worked  fifty 
hours  or  more,  and  were  the  only  stenographers  who 
approximated  the  legal  limit,  or  the  number  of  hours 
that  their  less  fortunate  sisters  in  the  industries  were 
working  every  week. 

The  most  highly  skilled  and  well-paid  workers,   the 
secretaries,    had    the    shortest    working    day.      None 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE   SERVICE.  107 

worked  more  than  fifty  hours,  and  more  than  three- 
fourths  (78.7  per  cent)  worked  less  than  forty  hours. 
The  secretary's  position  involves  so  much  responsibihty 
and  mental  strain  that  a  short  working  day  is  more 
essential  to  her  continued  efficiency  than  it  might  be 
to  the  clerk  whose  work  is  often  of  a  routine  and  almost 
mechanical  nature. 

While  statistics  on  hours  were  obtained  from  834 
women  working  in  offices,  specific  information  on  other 
conditions  of  work  was  obtained  only  from  the  310 
girls  from  the  schools  visited  in  the  homes.  Overtime, 
which  is  an  important  factor  in  many  occupations  for 
women,  1  is  also  found  in  office  service.  More  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  girls  (29.6  per  cent)  reported  overtime,  but 
few  of  the  cases  were  excessive.  In  some  instances  the 
first  of  the  month  or  the  first  of  the  week  brought  a 
rush  of  work,  which  kept  the  woman  in  the  oflSce  from 
fifteen  minutes  to  one  or  two  hours  later  than  the  usual 
closing  time.  In  other  cases,  overtime  amounted  to  no 
more  than  a  few  hours  during  a  whole  year.  The  kind 
of  business  in  which  the  woman  is  employed  determines 
the  probability  of  overtime,  to  a  great  degree.  Christ- 
mas season  may  cause  late  work  for  the  clerical  as  well 
as  the  sales  force  in  the  retail  stores.  The  girl,  alone 
in  the  office  of  a  small  shop  or  market,  is  often  kept  at 
her  desk  after  the  closing  hour  to  get  out  the  monthly 
statements.  In  other  offices,  the  seasons  of  rush  cannot 
be  foreseen  long  in  advance.  A  special  rush  of  orders 
in  a  selUng  agency  or  an  important  case  in  a  lawyer's 
office  may  occasionally  mean  very  late  work  for  the 
woman  in  the  office.  Often  the  girl  stayed  on  her  own 
initiative  to  complete  work  for  which  she  felt  a  special 
interest  or  responsibility.  Pay  for  overtime,  however, 
seems  to  be  usual.  Almost  one-half  (44.5  per  cent)  of 
the  girls  reporting  overtime  were  paid  for  their  work 
after  hours.  Such  payment  was  sometimes  only  money 
for  supper,  at  other  times  it  was  a  flat  rate  of  a  dollar, 

1  Department  of  Research,  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  AUinson,  May, 
Drtssmakino  as  a  Trade  for  Women,  Chapter  V. 


108  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

regardless  of  the  time  spent.  The  most  common  rule, 
however,  was  one  and  one-half  times  the  regular  amount 
for  the  time  spent.  In  a  few  cases,  overtime  work  was 
compensated  by  time  off,  so  that  if  the  girl  worked  late 
on  one  day,  she  was  not  required  to  come  in  on  time 
the  following  morning  or  she  might  be  given  time  in 
the  middle  of  the  day  to  go  shopping.  When  the  busi- 
ness of  the  employer  is  very  seasonal  in  character  and 
periods  of  rush  are  followed  by  periods  of  depression  in 
business,  the  girl  in  the  office  may  be  rewarded  for  a 
period  of  overtime  work  by  a  period  of  light  work  and 
short  hours.  The  summer  depression  in  many  kinds  of 
business  causes  a  consequent  shorter  day  in  the  offices. 
Girls  working  in  offices  which  require  six  full  days 
during  the  winter  often  work  but  five  and  one-half  dur- 
ing two  or  three  summer  months.  In  some  offices,  such 
as  that  of  a  selling  agency  for  summer  drinks,  the  order 
may  be  reversed  and  summer  days  become  longer  than 
the  required  winter  day. 

Women  in  office  service  are  especially  fortunate  in  the 
slight  reduction  of  their  wage  because  of  loss  of  time. 
While  the  factory  worker's  wages  are  reduced  for  holi- 
days and  ''lay  offs"  and  she  has  no  paid  vacations,  the 
woman  in  office  service  seldom  suffers  a  reduction  for 
holidays  and  usually  has  a  vacation  with  full  pay. 

The  nine  legal  holidays  of  the  state  were  given  to 
practically  all  the  girls  without  loss  of  pay.  In  some 
few  cases  girls  did  not  receive  holidays  which  fell  on 
Saturday  or  Monday  or  they  were  obliged  to  work  half 
of  every  holiday,  but  these  cases  were  exceptional. 
Beside  the  legal  holidays,  many  girls  were  given  from 
one-half  of  one  day  to  five  days  for  Hebrew  holi- 
days, in  all  but  one  case,  without  any  reduction  of 
salary. 

More  than  nine- tenths  of  the  girls  reported  a  vacation 
of  a  week  or  more  without  loss  of  pay.  The  usual  scale 
is  one  week's  vacation  for  six  months'  service  and  two 
weeks  for  one  year  or  more,  though  about  one-tenth  were 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE  SERVICE.  109 

given  only  one  week  with  pay  and  one  week  without  pay. 
About  three-fourths  have  a  vacation  of  "two  weeks  with 
pay";  almost  one-tenth  had  three  or  more  weeks,  and 
two  very  fortunate  girls  had  two  months  free  in  the 
summer. 

Office  service,  in  contrast  to  factory  or  store  work, 
neither  involves  the  danger  of  industrial  accident  nor 
the  evil  effects  resulting  from  constant  standing,  but 
certain  conditions  within  the  work  may  tend  toward 
eye  strain,  nervous  and  digestive  troubles.  The  girl 
who  realizes  the  possibility  of  these  evil  effects  of  the 
work  may,  by  proper  preventive  care,  entirely  avoid 
them.  It  is,  therefore,  most  advisable  that  the  com- 
mercial training  should  be  supplemented  by  correlated 
courses  in  hygiene. 

Although  eye  strain  was  complained  of  more  fre- 
quently than  any  other  discomfort  arising  from  the  work, 
only  about  one-tenth  (9  per  cent)  of  the  girls  reported 
this  trouble.  Poor  lighting  in  a  large  office  which  may 
not  be  well  lighted  throughout,  or  may  be  located  on  a 
balcony,  necessitating  artificial  light,  is  often  responsible 
for  this.  About  one-eighth  of  the  girls  worked  by  electric 
light  and  more  than  one-third  of  these  reported  trouble 
with  their  eyes.  The  majority  of  the  girls,  however, 
worked  in  well-lighted  offices.  Girls  should  be  advised 
to  avoid  working  in  offices  which  have  not  good  day- 
light if  possible.  A  proper  adjustment  of  the  desk  to 
the  window  so  that  the  light  falls  upon  the  work  and 
not  the  eyes  will  often  prevent  trouble.  Typewriters 
with  dull  green  keys,  instead  of  the  customary  white 
ones,  have  been  used  in  some  offices  to  relieve  the  opera- 
tor from  eye  strain  resulting  from  the  reflection  of 
electric  light  upon  the  keys.  The  school  may  also 
impress  upon  the  girl  the  necessity  for  good  care  of  her 
eyes  outside  working  hours. 

While  good  ventilation  is  much  a  matter  of  opinion,  it 
is  yet  indicative  of  office  conditions  that  less  than  one- 
tenth  (7.4  per  cent)  of  the  girls  complained  of  poor  air. 


110  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

In  the  majority  of  cases,  the  girls  work  in  small  offices 
where  they  can  control  ventilation  themselves  to  a 
much  greater  extent  than  in  a  factory  or  store. 

The  responsibility  which  the  woman  in  the  office  must 
often  assume,  together  with  the  rush  and  strain  of  busi- 
ness life,  might  be  expected  to  wear  upon  the  nerves. 
Although  but  few  of  the  girls  (4.8  per  cent)  complained 
of  nervousness,  one  or  two  cases  of  nervous  breakdown 
were  reported.  The  girl  who  is  disposed  to  nervous 
trouble  or  who  has  not  firm  control  of  her  nerves  should 
not  choose  office  work  as  her  vocation. 

The  sedentary  nature  of  office  work  occasionally  causes 
digestive  disturbance  to  the  woman  who  does  not  make  a 
point  of  taking  proper  exercise  outside  of  the  office. 
That  not  one  girl  out  of  every  hundred  (0.6  per  cent) 
complained  of  this  trouble,  seems  to  indicate  that  the 
majority  of  these  girls  realize  the  necessity  of  exercise 
outside  of  office  hours. 

Good  health  and  httle  loss  of  time  for  illness,  however, 
seemed  to  characterize  the  workers  in  the  occupation, 
and  only  nine  of  seventy-six  girls  reporting  absence  for 
illness,  ranging  from  one  day  to  more  than  three  weeks, 
lost  their  pay  during  this  period.  While  a  clerk  who 
may  be  easily  replaced  may  lose  her  position  because 
of  illness,  a  highly  skilled  stenographer,  bookkeeper  or 
secretary  may  not  suffer  any  reduction  or  lose  her 
position  for  an  absence  of  a  month  or  more.  In  large 
offices  where  the  number  of  employees  is  great  enough 
to  warrant  it,  mutual  benefit  societies  may  be  formed 
through  which  the  woman  at  work  may  be  insured 
against  accident  and  illness,  by  paying  a  nominal 
amount  into  the  common  treasury.  Again,  in  large  offices 
or  in  the  office  of  a  large  establishment  the  services 
of  a  doctor  or  nurse  are  occasionally  at  the  disposal  of 
the  woman  in  the  office. 

The  nominal  wage  of  the  woman  in  office  service, 
therefore,  differs  little  from  the  actual  wage,  for  in  only 
occasional  instances  are  the  usual  causes  of  reduction, 
such    as   holidays,  vacations,    "lay   offs"    and   illness, 


CHARACTER  OF  OFFICE   SERVICE.  lU 

deducted  for.  Clerical  work  suffered  the  least  reduction 
of  nominal  wage  in  six  occupations  studied  by  Miss 
Bosworth.  The  average  loss  was  8.25  per  cent  for 
clerical  workers,  8.83  per  cent  for  professional  workers, 
8.97  per  cent  for  kitchen  workers,  10.74  per  cent  for 
waitresses,  13.05  per  cent  for  saleswomen  and  18.43  per 
cent  for  factory  workers.^ 

Office  service,  therefore,  as  an  auxiliary  occupation, 
with  many  varied  conditions  and  opportunities,  presents 
certain  common  characteristics  which  place  it  on  a 
high  plane  among  women's  occupations.  One-third 
of  the  one  million  and  one-half  people  engaged  in  this 
work  are  women,  who  may  be  designated  as  clerks, 
bookkeepers,  stenographers  and  secretaries.  Men  pre- 
dominate in  the  occupations  of  clerk  and  bookkeeper, 
but  the  field  of  the  stenographer  and  of  the  secretary 
is  practically  monopolized  by  women.  Clerks  and 
stenographers  who  comprise  the  majority  of  women 
employed  in  office  service  present  opposite  extremes 
of  education  and  earning  capacity.  Bookkeeping  is 
being  revolutionized  by  the  division  of  labor  and  intro- 
duction of  labor-saving  machines,  and  men  are  hold- 
ing the  most  responsible  positions.  The  secretary's 
position,  which  involves  much  responsibility  and  very 
desirable  conditions  of  work,  is  the  goal  of  the  woman 
in  this  field. 

Office  service  is,  however,  still  in  the  stage  of  transi- 
tion where  the  different  occupations  frequently  merge 
into  one  another.  The  girl  in  the  small  office  may  be 
expected  to  perform  the  duties  of  all  the  different 
branches  of  the  service,  while  the  work  of  the  large 
office  may  be  highly  subdivided  and  specialized. 

Opportunity  for  advancement  may  be  influenced  by 
such  external  factors  as  the  nature  of  the  employer's 
business  or  his  system  of  office  management,  but  the 
girl's  educational  equipment,  her  own  inherent  ability 
and  her  personality  are  the  real  influences  determining 

'  Department  of  Research,  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  Bosworth, 
Louise  Marion,  The  Living  Wage  of  Women  Workert,  page  37. 


112  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 

promotion.  The  introduction  of  office  machinery  will, 
undoubtedly,  make  great  changes  in  office  work,  but 
mental  ability,  a  broad  educational  background  and 
general  intelligence  seem  to  be  in  greater  demand  than 
ever  before. 

Adequate  and  systematized  adjustment  between 
demand  and  supply  is  one  of  the  great  unsolved  problems 
of  the  occupation.  The  present  haphazard  methods  of 
securing  positions  in  this  field  are  bad  from  the  stand- 
point of  efficient  economic  adjustment  and  equally 
unfortunate  in  lowering  the  standard  of  efficiency  within 
the  occupation.  Women  with  a  personal  background  of 
experience  and  knowledge  in  some  JDarticular  line  have 
little  opportunity  to  be  fitted  into  the  business  or  pro- 
fession where  they  could  make  a  valuable  contribution. 
The  large  fringe  of  temporary  workers  who  have  not 
found  their  proper  niche  hinders  the  establishment  of  a 
standard  of  requirements  from  employers  and  of  a 
high  standard  of  efficiency  for  the  occupation. 

Working  conditions  within  the  occupation  are,  how- 
ever, unusually  good.  Working  hours  are  relatively 
short,  overtime  seldom  excessive  and  usually  compen- 
sated, and  the  conditions  within  the  office  usually  very 
good.  The  office  worker  suffers  very  little  reduction  of 
her  nominal  wage,  holidays,  vacations  and  absence 
during  illness,  in  most  cases,  being  paid  for.  In  fact, 
it  was  found  that  the  women  in  office  service  suffered 
the  smallest  wage  reduction  of  six  large  women-employ- 
ing occupations. 

Office  service  as  an  occupation  for  women,  therefore 
offers  exceptional  opportunities  for  mental  development 
financial  advancement  and  very  desirable  conditions 
of  work  as  compared  with  other  occupations  in  the 
business  and  industrial  world. 


WAGES.  113 


CHAPTER   IV.— WAGES 


Margaret  M.  Lothrop 


"Provision  of  a  living  wage  for  the  worker"  was  the 
first  requisite  for  a  skilled  occupation  advanced  by  a 
conference  of  leaders  in  industrial  education  called  by 
Mr.  Prosser  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Industrial  Education.^  Few  occupations  for  women, 
however,  can  meet  such  a  requisite.  If  S9  is  accepted 
as  the  lowest  adequate  living  wage,  only  three  indus- 
tries 2  in  Massachusetts  employing  2,000  or  more 
women  maintained  one-half  or  more  of  their  women 
workers  on  a  hving  wage.  The  boot  and  shoe  industry 
is  the  best  paid,  large  manufacturing  industry  in  Massa- 
chusetts. Less  than  one-fourth  (23.2  per  cent)  of  its 
women,  eighteen  years  of  age  and  over,  earned  less  than 
S8,  but  almost  one-half  (48.7  per  cent)  earned  less  than 
$10.3  The  commercial  world  with  its  two  main  occupa- 
tions for  women,  salesmanship  and  office  service,  makes 
far  greater  demand  on  its  employees  for  dress  and 
personal  appearance.  A  higher  wage  scale  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  occupation. 
Department  stores,  however,  show  an  even  lower  wage 
scale  than  some  of  the  better  industries.  Three-fifths 
(60.5  per  cent)  of  the  2,861  women,  eighteen  years  of 
age  and  over,  earned  less  than  %S  in  the  department 
stores  of  Boston,  as  reported  by  the  Minimum  Wage 
Commission  of  1912.'* 

No  official  census  has  ever  been  made  of  the  earnings 
of  the  large  and  important  group  of  office  workers  as 
a  whole,  but  the  wage  statistics   secured   from   1,177 

>  Tht  Survey,  January  2J,  1914,  page  490. 

•  Boota  and  alioos,  straw  Lata  and  silk. 

•  Mnssnchuautta    Bureau     of    Statistics,    Report   on    Statistics   of  Manufactures,   1912 
pase  87. 

•  Masaachuaetts  Commission  on  Minimum  Wage  Boards,  Report  of,  1912,  page  113. 


114  \YOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

women  in  offices  in  Boston  showed  that  office  service 
ranked  very  high,  with  only  16.5  per  cent  earning  less 
than  S8,  and  an  average  wage  of  $11  for  the  entire 
group.  Only  one-twentieth  (5  per  cent)  of  the  439 
stenographers  earned  less  than  $8,  and  the  average 
wage  for  the  occupation  was  $11.93.  The  clerks  who 
are  the  least  skilled  of  the  office  workers  earned  an 
average  wage  of  $9.66  and  one-fourth  (25.5  per  cent) 
earned  less  than  S8.  The  310  girls  studied  from  the 
schools,  therefore,  compared  favorably  with  those  at 
work  in  business  offices,  since  only  18  per  cent  earned 
less  than  $8. 

A  study  of  the  efficiency  of  the  girls  trained  for  office 
service  in  the  schools  necessitated  an  intensive  and 
extensive  knowledge  of  the  wage  scale  of  the  occupa- 
tion. What  should  be  the  beginning  wage  of  the  girls 
graduating  from  high  school?  What  should  they  be 
earning  after  a  certain  length  of  experience?  What 
are  the  best  kinds  of  offices  into  which  to  direct  a  young 
girl  from  the  standpoint  of  earning  possibilities  and 
opportunities  for  advancement?  With  such  questions 
in  mind,  wage  statistics  have  been  gathered  from  all 
available  sources  and  presented  for  consideration. 

Only  three  printed  sources  were  found:  the  govern- 
ment study-  of  wage-earning  women  in  stores  and 
factories,^  the  annual  report  of  the  salaries  of  the  Civil 
Service  Commission,-  and  an  intensive  study  of  the 
opportunities  for  secretaries  based  on  those  registered 
in  the  Appointment  Bureau  of  the  Women's  Educational 
and  Industrial  Union  and  those  graduating  from  Sim- 
mons College.^  In  addition  to  this  printed  data, 
statistics  have  been  gathered  from  typewriter  and 
employment  agencies.  Each  of  these  sources  presented 
the  wage  scale  of  a  particular  group  of  women  in  office 
service,  but  not  of  the  occupation  as  a  whole.     The 

*  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  Women  and  Child  Waye-earncrs  in  the  United  Statet, 
Volume  V.      Wage-earning  Women  in  Stores  and  Factories,  page  45. 

'  List  of  the  Officials  and  Employees  of  the  Commonwealth  of  Masscu;husetts,  1912-1913. 
Public  Document  No.  90. 

'  Research  Department,  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  Vocationi  for 
the  Trained  Woman,  Part  II,  page  129. 


WAGES.  115 

study  of  the  wages  of  35,000  women  in  department  and 
retail  stores  made  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Labor  in  1910  showed  the  low  wage  paid  office  workers 
in  mercantile  establishments.  Eighty-seven  per  cent 
of  the  office  employees,  as  compared  with  70.7  per  cent 
of  the  saleswomen,  were  paid  less  than  $10.  The  wages 
of  office  workers  in  stores  are,  however,  by  no  means 
typical,  nor  do  they  show  the  opportunities  of  the 
occupation  as  a  whole.  The  tremendous  amount  of 
work  involved  in  recording  and  transcribing  the  business 
of  the  large  selling  establishments  is  divided  among 
many  young  workers  who  do  the  routine  work  under 
direction,  and  at  a  small  wage.  The  largest  part  of  the 
office  force  of  department  stores  are  young  clerical 
workers  called  clerks;  payment  clerks,  auditing  clerks, 
C.  O.  D.  clerks,  charge  record  clerks,  billing  clerks, 
mail  order  clerks  and  cashiers.  Only  a  very  small 
number  are  skilled  workers  with  a  substantial  back- 
ground of  general  and  technical  training.^ 

Civil  Service,  on  the  other  hand,  controls  the  posi- 
tions in  most  of  the  municipal  and  state  offices  and 
has  a  higher  wage  scale  for  the  majority  of  its  workers 
than  is  found  in  the  occupation  as  a  whole.  The  Civil 
Service  workers  are,  however,  a  selected  group,  sifted 
by  the  Civil  Service  examinations  which  test  not  only 
general  education  and  capacity  for  original  thinking, 
but  also  the  technical  skill  of  the  applicant.  A  negligible 
proportion,  1.2  per  cent,  of  the  495  women  working  in 
offices  under  Civil  Service  regulation  in  Massachusetts 
earned  less  than  $8,  while  nearly  one-fourth  earned  less 
than  $12.  More  than  one-half  (56.1  per  cent)  earned 
from  $12  to  $18,  inclusive,  and  almost  one-fifth  (19.4 
per  cent)  earned  $20  or  more. 

Another  selected  group  is  described  in  a  survey  of 
the  salaries  of  1,002  women  in  office  service  earning 
$10  and  over  studied  from  the  records  of  the  Appoint- 
ment Bureau  for  the  Trained  Woman  in  the  Women's 
Educational  and  Industrial  Union  and  from  those  of 

I  See  Chapter  III,  page  83. 


116 


WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 


Simmons  College.^  Almost  three-fourths  (72.8  per  cent) 
earned  from  SIO  to  $15,  inclusive,  and  one-fourth  of  these 
(25.3  per  cent)  had  had  college  training.  More  than 
one-half  (58.5  per  cent)  had  worked  less  than  five  years. 
The  tj^pewriter  agencies  provided  another  valuable 
source    of    information    concerning    the    stenographers 

Table  23. —  Showing  Wages  of  Women  Office  Workers  in  Civil 
Service  by  Occupations,   1912. ^ 


Number  in  Each  Occupation  by  Specified  Wage. 

Wage. 

Stenographers 

and 

Typists. 

Bookkeepers 

and 
Accountants. 

Clerks. 

Unclassified. 

Total. 

4 

1 

1 

5 

$7  and  less  than  $8 

1 

$9  and  less  than  $10 .... 

1 

2 

37 

25 

23 

16 

10 

15 

17 

7 

1 

21 

7 

1 

18 

7 

41 

13 

27 

26 

14 

43 

25 

13 

6 

47 

7 

20 

$10  and  less  than  $11 

9 

111  and  less  than  $12.  .  . 

1 

79 

$12  and  less  than  $13 

38 

$13  and  less  than  $14 .  .  . 

1 

51 

$14  and  less  than  $15 

1 

43 

24 

$16  and  less  than  $17 

68 

$17  and  less  than  $18... 
$18  and  less  than  $19 

1 

1 

44 
20 

$19  and  less  than  $20.  .  . 

7 

$20  and  less  than  $25 .  .  . 

9 
1 

2 
2 

79 
17 

Total  number 

187 
37.8 

13 
2.6 

288 
58.2 

75 
1.4 

495 
100.0 

'  Twenty-Ninth  Annual  Report  of  the  Civil  Service  Commission  of  Massachusetts,  1913. 
'  Two  supervisors  and  five  inspectors. 


and  typists,  who  again  constitute  a  selected  group. ^ 
An  examination  for  speed  and  general  knowledge  of 
letter  form  and   spelling  eliminates   the   incompetent. 

•  Department  of  Research,  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  Vocaliona 
for  the  Trained  Woman,  Part  H,  Tables  1  and  2,  pages  129  and  131.  All  earning  less 
than  $10  were  eUminated. 

»  See  Chapter  III,  page  8. 


WAGES.  117 

According  to  young  high  school  graduates,  however, 
the  ability  to  take  stenographic  notes  at  the  rate  of 
100  words  a  minute  is  not  an  exorbitant  requirement 
nor  too  severe  a  test.  More  than  one-half  (51.3  per 
cent)  of  the  9,488  stenographers  placed  by  the  five 
typewriter  agencies  during  1913  received  S12  to  SI 5, 
inclusive,  53.7  per  cent  earning  $12  or  more.  In  about 
equal  proportions,   22.7  per  cent   earned  $9  and  less 


Chart  V. —  Showing  Wages  of  9,488  Stenographers  and  Typists  placed 
by  Five  Typewriter  Agencies  during  the  Year  1913. 


Under  $6. 

$7. 

$8. 

$9. 

$10. 

$11. 

$12. 

$13. 

$14. 

$15. 

$16. 

$17. 

$18. 

Over 

$6.   566 

492 

1163 

853 

1261 

42 

2711 

56 

78 

2019 

19 

5 

172 

$18. 

12 

39 

than  $12  and  23.6  per  cent  earned  less  than  S9.  There- 
fore, 46.3  per  cent  of  those  placed  by  the  agencies,  as 
compared  with  24.1  per  cent  of  the  stenographers  and 
typists  in  Civil  Service,  earned  less  than  $12. 

An  employment  bureau  pro\'ided  still  another  source 
of  information  for  a  group  of  509  office  workers.  Here 
again,  a  certain  amount  of  selection  eliminated  the  less 
desirable,  but  no  specific  test  was  required.  Nearly 
three-fourths  (71.7  per  cent)  earned  less  than  $12,  while 
less  than  one-tenth  (9  per  cent)  earned  $15  and  over. 


118 


WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 


Since  office  service  includes  all  kinds  of  workers 
ranging  from  clerks  engaged  in  comparatively  routine 
work  to  secretaries  engaged  in  administrative  and 
executive  duties,  a  comparison  of  the  wage  by  occu- 
pation is  more  significant  than  a  wage  comparison  of 
groups  with  entirely  different  component  parts.  Civil 
Service,  the  employment  bureau  and  the  local  survey 
all  included  stenographers,  clerks  and  bookkeepers, 
differing  in  numbers  and  degrees  of  efficiency.  The 
wage  scale  of  the  workers  secured  through  the  local 
survey  is  not  as  high  as  that  of  Civil  Service  but  is  higher 

Table  24. —  Showing  Wages  of  Office  Workers  Registered  in  an 
Employment  Bureau,  1913. 


Number  in  Each  Occupation  bt 
Specified  Wage. 

Total. 

Wages. 

Stenographers. 

Clerks 
and  Office 
Workers. 

Bookkeepers. 

Number. 

Per 
Cent. 

Less  than  $8 

43 

130 

56 

30 

59 

54 

13 

3 

13 
66 
29 
13 

115 

250 

98 

46 

22.6 

$8  and  less  than  $12 

$12  and  less  than  $15.  .  . 
$15  and  over 

49,1 

19.3 

9.0 

Total 

259 

129 

121 

509 

100.0 

than  that  of  the  applicants  at  the  employment  bureau. 
Thus,  24.1  per  cent  of  the  stenographers  in  Civil  Service 
earned  less  than  $12  as  compared  with  66.8  per  cent 
of  those  registered  at  the  employment  bureau.  About 
the  same  proportion,  44.2  per  cent,  of  the  stenographers 
and  secretaries  secured  through  the  local  canvass  and 
46.3  per  cent  of  those  placed  by  the  typewriter  agen- 
cies earned  less  than  $12,  the  average  wage  for  the 
occupation.     (See  Chart  VI.) 

Less  than  one  per  cent  of  the  clerks  in  Civil  Service 
earned  less  than  $8,  but  45.7  per  cent  of  those  regis- 
tered in  the  employment  bureau  and  only  25.5  per 
cent  of  the  clerks  studied  in  offices  earned  less  than 
$8.     Again,  only  23.3  per  cent  of  the  clerks  in  Civil 


Chart    VI.— Showing  Occupations   by   Wage  of   Office  Workers  from 
Various  Sources  —  Civil  Service,  an  Employment  Agency,  and  Offices. 


STENOGRAPHERS.  TYPISTS,   AND   SECRETARIES. 


100 


80. 


60. 


100 


2S9 


CLERKS. 


288  120  675 

BOOKKEEPERS   AND   ACCOUNTANTS. 


13 

121 

20 

Civil  Service- 

An  Emplojment 
Agency- 

Offices 

I 


D 


119 


120 


WOMEN   IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


Service,  while  76  per  cent  of  those  studied  in  offices 
and  87.6  per  cent  registered  in  the  employment  bureau, 
earned  less  than  SI 2. 

The  women  in  Civil  Service  positions  are  so  selected 
a  group  that  they  do  not  represent  the  general  wage 
opportunities.  Those  applying  at  employment  bureaus, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  likely  to  be  below  the  standard 


Table  25. —  Showing  Wages  of   1,177  Women  in  Office  Service  by 
Occupation. 1 


Number  in  Spbcified  Occupations 
Earning  Specified  Wage. 

Total. 

Weekly  Wages. 

Secre- 
taries. 

Stenog- 
raphers 

and 
Typists. 

Book- 
keepers. 

Clerks. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

41 

74 

57 

134 

60 

147 

101 

37 

11 

10 

3 

41 

78 

75 

202 

109 

222 

233 

130 

34 

26 

27 

3.5 

$6  and  less  than  $7 

4 
18 
64 
49 
73 
121 
78 
16 
11 
5 

4 

1 
7 
7 
2 
2 
6 

6  6 

$7  and  less  than  S8 

6.4 

$8  and  less  than  $9 

17.2 

$9  and  less  than  SIO 

9.3 

$10  and  less  than  S12 

$12  and  less  than  Slo 

$15  and  less  than  $18 

$18  and  less  than  $20 

$20  and  less  than  $25 

$25  and  over 

1  = 
4 
8 
5 
3 
13 

18.9 
19.8 
11.0 
2.9 
2.2 
2.2 

Total 

34 

439 

29 

675 

1.177 

100  0 

1  Secured  from  workers  in  offices. 

'Listed  as  a  secretary  because  of  the  character  of  her  duties. 

of  efficiency  and,  hence,  do  not  represent  the  real 
wage  opportunities.  The  experience  of  1,177  workers 
secured  by  a  local  canvass  of  offices  will,  therefore,  be 
taken  as  a  basis  for  a  study  of  wages  in  office  service, 
since  they  represent,  so  far  as  possible,  the  widest  range 
of  all  types. 

The  field  and  opportunities  o])cn  to  the  private  sec- 
retary whose  work  assumes  more  of  the  executive  or 
administrative  character  has  been  already  presented 
in  an  intensive  study  by  Miss  Post,  and  the  few  secre- 


WAGES.  121 

taries  (34)  secured  in  this  local  canvass  of  offices  are 
included  only  for  comparison.^     Frequently,  however, 
a  "head  stenographer"  in  the  business  world  has  much 
the  same  duties  and  opportunities  which  a  so-called 
secretary  in  educational,  social    or  literary    institutions 
may  have.     Since  it  has  often  been  impossible  to  make 
a  distinction  between  the  stenographer  and  secretary 
in  a  business  house,  the  business  term  ''stenographer" 
has  been  accepted,  lessening  the  number  of  returns  from 
secretaries  and  increasing  those  from  the  stenographer. 
Even  more  important,  it  has  shown  that  the  connection 
between  the  stenographer  and  the  secretary  is  close  and 
continuous.     A  stenographer  may  become  a  secretary, 
if   she   can   only   adapt   herself   to   the   requirements: 
capacity  for  responsibility,  initiative  and  executive  and 
administrative  abihty.    So,  too,  there  is  a  limited  oppor- 
tunity for  the  well-trained  bookkeeper  ^  with  executive 
ability,  but  the  women  in  both  these  occupations  con- 
stitute a  comparatively  small  part  of  the  office  workers. 
The  great  mass  of  women  in  office  service  constitute 
two     main    groups:    stenographers    and    typists,   who 
represent  technical  skill  in  addition  to  general  education, 
and  clerks,  copyists  and  "office  girls,"  who  do  clerical 
work  primarily.     The  clerks  in  the  business  world  are 
the  least  skilled  of  the  women  in  office  service.     They 
must  not  be  confused,  however,  with  the  executive  and 
administrative  clerks  in  Civil  Service,  who  correspond 
to  the  private  secretary  in  business  houses  or  educational 
institutions.     These  clerks  in  administrative  positions 
are  very  well  paid,  one  reporting  S28  a  week.     Only 
two  stenographers,  one  earning  $30  and  one  S34,  reported 
a  higher  wage.     Few,  however,  reach  these  highly  paid 
clerkships,  and  they  are  seldom  found  outside  of  Civil 
Service.     Since   the   educator   must   study   the   actual 
processes    and    duties   of    different    kinds    of   workers, 
boundary  lines  must  be   drawn  between  clerks   doing 
merely  clerical  work,  as  in  the  business  world,  and  clerks 

'  Department  of  Research,  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  Vocntiom  for 
the  Trained  Woman,  Part  II,  page  113  et  seq. 

•For  discussion  of  bookkeepers,  see  Chapter  III,  page  7o. 


122 


WOMEN   IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


with  broad  executive  and  administrative  duties,  as  in 
Civil  Service,  who  under  other  circumstances  would 
probably  be  called  secretaries. 

What  are  the  main  characteristics  of  the  stenographers 
and  clerks?  In  how  far  does  a  girl's  education  determine 
her  position  in  her  business  life?  These  are  the  questions 
underlying  this  study.  Four  factors  —  age,  education, 
experience  and  personal  ability  —  determine,  in  varying 
degrees,  the  wage.  While  age  is  not  the  most  important 
factor,  maturity  within  certain  limits  does  determine 


Table  26. —  Showing  Wage  by  Age  of  985  Women  in  Office  Service. 


Number  Eaeninq  Wage  by 

Specified 

A.GE. 

Total. 

Ages. 

a 

Sq6 

S2 

S"5 

mOO 

S!Q 

—  «» 

—  «» 

M 

§1 

«5 

M 

Is 

05  p. 

S 

ots 

00  ti 

m  o 

^ 

I-] 

t» 

«» 

¥i 

e» 

»» 

<y» 

^ 

Si 

16  years  and  under  18. .  . 

13 
23 

19 
93 

10 
163 

5 
34 

2 
25 

1 
6 

50 
346 

5.1 

18  years  and  under  21. .  . 

1 

1 

35.1 

21  years  and  under  25 . .  . 

3 

33 

80 

58 

82 

28 

8 

2 

294 

29.8 

25  years  and  under  30 .  .  . 

2 

6 

26 

36 

49 

32 

14 

5 

170 

17.3 

30  years  and  under  35 .  .  . 

1 

3 

2 

16 

21 

13 

6 

62 

6.3 

1 

2 

3 

8 

20 

20 

9 

63 

6.4 

Total 

41 

153 

284 

138 

182 

108 

56 

23 

985 

100.0 

earning  capacity.  More  than  four-fifths  (82.2  per  cent) 
of  the  985  women  reporting  age  were  between  eighteen 
and  thirty  years  of  age.  Slightly  more  than  one-third 
(35.1  per  cent)  were  between  eighteen  and  twenty-one 
and  more  than  one-fourth  (29.8  per  cent)  were  between 
twenty-one  and  twenty-five  years  of  age.  (See  Table  26.) 
While  the  same  proportion  (40.2  per  cent)  of  the 
women  working  in  offices  and  those  applying  for  positions 
at  the  employment  bureau  (40.5  per  cent)  were  under 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  a  larger  proportion  (13.2  per 
cent)  of  the  latter  were  under  eighteen  years  of  age  as 
compared  with  only  5.1  per  cent  of  those  studied  in 
oihces. 


WAGES.  123 

Although  practically  the  same  proportion  from  both 
sources  were  twenty-one  years  and  over,  a  larger  propor- 
tion, 19.8  per  cent,  of  those  applying  for  positions  were 
thirty  or  more  years  of  age,  in  contrast  to  12.7  per  cent 
of  those  studied  from  offices.  More  than  four-fifths 
(81.1  per  cent)  of  those  under  twenty-one  studied  from 
offices  were  earning  less  than  $10.  More  than  two- 
thirds  (67.7  per  cent)  of  the  women  between  twenty- 
one  and  thirty  years  of  age  earned  $10  or  more,  and  90.4 
per  cent  of  those  thirty  years  or  more  earned  $12  and 
over. 

The  different  occupations  within  office  service,  how- 
ever, are  characterized  by  fairly  definite  age  groups. 
Practically  none  of  the  few  secretaries  secured  from 
offices  were  younger  than  twenty-one  years.  A  httle 
less  than  one-half  (45.2  per  cent)  of  the  clerks  reporting 
as  compared  with  somewhat  over  one-third  (37.9  per 
cent)  of  the  stenographers  were  below  twenty-one  years 
of  age,  while  nearly  the  same  proportions  (46.1  per  cent) 
of  the  clerks  and  (49  per  cent)  of  the  stenographers 
were  between  twenty-one  and  thirty  years  of  age. 

Since  the  clerks  and  the  stenographers  differ  little 
in  age,  the  wide  variation  in  wage  cannot  be  ascribed 
to  this  cause.  Only  one-twentieth  (5  per  cent)  of  the 
stenographers  earned  less  than  $8,  while  one-fourth 
(25.5  per  cent)  of  the  clerks  did  not  earn  this  small 
amount.  (See  Tables  28  and  29.)  This  proportion  is 
small,  however,  in  comparison  with  the  wages  of  women 
in  stores,  three-fifths  of  whom  earned  less  than  $8  and 
who  must  meet  much  the  same  demands  for  dress  and 
personal  appearance.  This  minimum  of  $8,  which  has 
been  suggested  as  the  lowest  living  wage  for  women 
workers,^  can  scarcely  be  so  regarded  in  an  occupation, 
such  as  office  service,  which  requires  larger  expenditure 
to  meet  the  personal  demands  of  the  business  world. 

The  earnings  of  the  clerks  and  copyists  grouped  about 
$8  to  $15  and  the  stenographers,  representing  a  higher 

»  Mftssacliusotts  Commission  on  Minimum  Wage  Boards,  Report  of  1912,  page  113. 
Louise  M.  liosworth,  in  The  Living  Wage  of  Women  Workers,  page  10,  estimates  $9  to 
$12  as  essential. 


124  WOMEN   IN  OFFICE   SERVICE. 

degree  of  education  and  technical  training,  grouped  about 
the  SIO  to  SIS  wage.  (See  Table  25.)  Almost  two-thirds 
(65.5  per  cent)  of  the  clerks  earned  $8  and  less  than 
$15.  Almost  the  same  proportion  (62  per  cent)  of 
the  stenographers  and  typists  earned  SIO  and  less  than 
$18.  Since  S12  seems  to  represent  a  more  nearly  ade- 
quate living  wage  for  the  independent  women  engaged 
in  office  work,  it  has  been  used  as  a  dividing  line  between 
those  well-paid  and  those  below  the  standard  of  the 
average  worker.  Although  the  average  wage  of  the 
1,177  women  studied  in  offices  was  $11,  a  weekly 
wage  of  Sll  is  so  seldom  paid  that  S12  has  been  taken 
as  a  more  satisfactory  dividing  line,  especially  since  the 
average  wage  of  439  stenographers  studied  from  offices 
was  SI  1.93.  More  than  three-fourths  (76  per  cent)  of 
the  675  clerks  but  less  than  one-half  (47.4  per  cent)  of 
the  439  stenographers  studied  from  offices  earned  less 
than  S12.  (See  Tables  27  and  28.)  The  majority  of  the 
twenty-nine  bookkeepers  and  practically  all  the  thirty- 
four  secretaries  earned  S12  or  more,  although  they  formed 
a  small  proportion  of  the  total  group. 

Wherein  lies  the  secret  which  enables  one  girl  to  earn 
a  good  salary  while  others,  who  started  with  her,  are 
forced  to  be  content  wdth  inferior  positions?  High 
salaries  are  paid  only  for  positions  demanding  skill, 
intelligence  or  responsibility.  Great  opportunities  are 
open  to  the  women  who  can  meet  these  requisites,  but 
many  obstacles  hedge  about  the  entrance  to  the  more 
responsible  positions.  Training,  personal  qualifications, 
experience  and  chance  are  all  involved.  The  haphazard 
methods,  by  w^hich  employment  is  secured,  may  place 
a  girl  of  great  possibilities  in  an  office  offering  little 
opportunity  for  initiative  or  growth.^  Yet  economic 
pressure  at  home  or  lack  of  foresight  may  hinder  her 
from  accepting  a  lower  beginning  wage  which  might 
hold  greater  possibilities  for  advancement.  Blind 
changes  or  drifting  from  one  position  to  another  are, 
moreover,   equally  unfortunate,   for   long   and  efficient 

'  For  discuasioD  of  methods  of  securing  work,  see  Chapter  HI,  page  96. 


WAGES.  125 

service  increases  the  value  of  the  worker  to  her  employer. 
Adequate  educational  background  as  a  preliminary 
equipment,  developed  by  years  of  experience,  is,  how- 
ever, the  fundamental  basis  for  success  and  advance- 
ment, and  with  these  in  the  right  proportions,  individual 
obstacles  or  particular  circumstances  prove  ineffectual 
handicaps. 

The  workers  in  office  service  present  the  widest  range 
of  educational  background.  The  recent  development 
of  commercial  or  secretarial  schools  and  departments  of 
college  and  university  rank  is  introducing  an  important 
new  competitor  —  the  college  trained  secretary  —  in  the 
field  of  office  service.^  The  majority  of  women  in  the 
business  world,  however,  have  not  had  these  advanced 
educational  opportunities.  The  1,177  women  secured 
from  offices  represented  three  degrees  of  preliminary 
preparation;^  high  school  graduation,  high  school  train- 
ing without  graduation,  and  grammar  schooling.  Many, 
nevertheless,  supplemented  this  preliminary  education 
with  intensive  and  technical  courses  in  private  business 
schools. 

The  amount  of  education  with  which  the  girl  starts 
to  work  predetermines,  to  a  large  degree,  the  occupation 
which  she  enters  and  consequently  defines  her  wage 
opportunities.  Almost  one-half  (45.8  per  cent)  of  the 
675  clerks  studied  in  offices  had  started  in  high  school 
but  had  not  graduated.  More  than  one-fifth  (21.9 
per  cent)  had  not  even  attended  high  school.  (See 
Table  27.)  More  than  two-thirds  (67.7  per  cent)  of  the 
clerks,  therefore,  were  not  high  school  graduates,  while 
almost  one-half  (48.3  per  cent)  of  the  stenographers  had 
graduated  from  high  school. 

Education  and  earning  capacity  also  bear  a  most 
striking  correlation.  Increased  education  means  better 
preparation  and  increased  opportunities  for  the  respon- 
sible positions  which  pay  high  wages.  Only  29  per  cent 
of  the  clerks  were  high  school  graduates,  while  almost 

1  Rcsi-arcli  Dcpsirtiiient,  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,   Vocations  for  Iht 
Trained  Wonidri,  Part  II,  page  111  W  seq. 
•  A  few  college  grailuates  reported. 


126 


WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


one-half  (45.8  per  cent)  had  attended  high  school  but 
had  not  graduated.  (See  Table  27.)  More  than  one- 
third  (37.2  per  cent)  of  the  graduates  in  contrast  to 
one-fifth  (21.4  per  cent)  of  the  non-graduates  earned 
S12  or  more.  (See  Table  28.)  An  intensive  technical 
course  in  a  private  business  school  seems  to  give  the 

Table  27. —  Showing  Schooling  of  675  Clerks  and  439  Stenographers. 


Office  Workers  With 
Specified  Schooling. 

TOTAI-. 

Schooling. 

CLERKS. 

STENOGRA- 
PHERS. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

196 

29.0 

212 

1 

48.3 

408 

36.7 

With  business  college  training 

34 
162 

5.0 
24.0 

120 
92 

27.3 
21.0 

154 
254 

13  8 

22  9 

High  school  non-graduates 

309 

45.8 

163 

37.1 

472 

42.4 

With  business  college  training 

38 
271 

5.6 
40.2 

100 
63 

22.8 
14.3 

138 
334 

12  4 

30.0 

Grammar  school  pupils 

148 

21.9 

38 

8.7 

186 

16.7 

30 
118 

4.4 
17.5 

33 
5 

7.5 
1.2 

63 
123 

5  7 

11.0 

Unclassified 

22 

3.3 

26 

5.9 

48 

4.3 

Total 

675 

100.0 

439 

100.0 

1,114 

100  0 

clerk  a  further  advantage,  although  only  15.1  per  cent 
of  the  675  clerks  studied  availed  themselves  of  this 
opportunity.^  One-half  of  the  34  high  school  graduates, 
who  had  gone  to  business  school,  as  compared  with 
only  one-third  (34.5  per  cent)  of  the  162  who  had  not 
taken  such  training,  earned  $12  or  more.  The  few  non- 
graduates  (38)  who  had  supplemented  their  unfinished 
high  school  training  at  a  business  school  seemed  equally 

'  34  high  school  graduates,  38  non-graduates,  and  30  with  only  grammar  schooling — 
total  102,  or  15.1  per  cent,  took  additional  technical  training. 


WAGES. 


127 


Chart  VII. —  Showing  Schooling  by  Present  Wage  of  675  Clerks 
and  439  Stenographers.  Based  on  Tables  28  and  29,  Pages  128 
and  130. 


High  School 

Mich  School 

High  School 

High  School 

Qrammai 

Qrammar 

Graduate 

Non-Oraduate 

with 

without 

with 

without 

Additional 

Additional 

Additional 

Additional 

Additional 

Additional 

Tralnlnt. 

Training. 

Training. 

Training. 

Training. 

Training. 

STENOGRAPHERS. 
63  33 


Additional 
Training. 


High  School 

Graduate 

without 

Additional 

Training. 


High  School 

Non-Uraduato 

with 

Additional 

Training. 


High  School 

Non-Oraduato 

without 

Additional 

Training. 


Grammar 

School 

with 

Additional 

Training. 


$15  and  over, 

$12  and  less  tfian  $15. 


KEY: 


$8  and  less  than  $12.  ES 
Less  than  $8,  i^b 


'The  number  07.'>  includt^s  22  unclassified  as  to  schooling.     Graph  based  on  Go3. 
•The  number  i'S'.)  includes  2{)  unclassified  as  to  schooling  and  5  with  Grammar  Schooling 
without  Additional  Training.     Graph  based  on  413. 


128 


WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


well  prepared,  42.1  per  cent  earning  $12  or  more. 
Thus,  the  girl  who  has  been  unable  to  complete  her  high 
school  course  can  equip  herself,  by  an  intensive  course 
in  a  private  business  school,  for  practically  the  same 
position  as  that  held  by  a  high  school  graduate  without 
additional  training.  In  sharp  contrast  are  the  wages 
of  the  419  clerks  who  did  not  attend  business  school 


Table  28. —  Showing  Schooling  of  675  Clerks  with  Relation  to  Wages. 


Clerks  Earning  Specified  Wage. 

Schooling. 

LESS  THAN 
$8. 

$8  AND  LESS 
THAN  $12. 

$12  AND 

LESS  THAN 

$15. 

$15  AND 
OVER. 

Total. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Niim- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

30 

15.3 

93 

47.5 

39 

19.9 

34 

17.3 

196 

With  business  college  training .... 
Without  business  college  training. . 

2 

28 

5.9 
17.2 

15 

78 

44.1 
48.3 

8 
31 

23.5 
19.1 

9 
25 

26.5 
15.4 

34 

162 

High  school  non-graduates 

87 

28.1 

156 

50.5 

47 

15.2 

19 

6.2 

309 

With  business  college  training  .... 
Without  business  college  training. . 

6 

81 

15.8 
29.9 

16 
140 

42.1 
51.7 

7 
40 

18.4 
14.8 

9 
10 

23.7 
3.6 

38 
271 

Granunar  school  pupils 

50 

33.8 

77 

52.0 

13 

8.8 

8 

5.4 

148 

With  business  college  training  .... 
Without  business  college  training. 

7 
43 

23.3 
36.4 

19 
58 

63.4 
49.2 

3 
10 

10.0 
8.5 

1 
7 

3.3 
5.9 

30 
118 

5 

22.7 

15 

68.2 

2 

9.1 

22 

Total 

172 

25.5 

341 

60.5 

101 

15.0 

61 

9.0 

675 

after  a  partial  high  school  training,  or  had  only  grammar 
schooling,  regardless  of  additional  technical  training. 
Only  71  or  16.9  per  cent  earned  $12  or  more.  (See 
Table  28.)  Although  62. 1  per  cent  of  the  clerks  obtained 
only  this  inadequate  training  (See  Table  27)  it  is  appar- 
ent that  clerks  with  an  adequate  educational  background 
do  have  the  opportunity  to  advance  in  the  business 
world. 


WAGES.  129 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  234  who  had  graduated 
or  supplemented  a  partial  high  school  training,  with 
technical  training,  constituted  but  34.7  per  cent  of  the 
clerks,  those  with  such  training  formed  54.9  per  cent 
of  the  clerks  earning  $12  and  over.  Wages,  therefore, 
roughly  express  the  educational  equipment  of  the 
workers.  More  than  three-fourths  (76.2  per  cent)  of 
those  who  earned  less  than  S8  were  women  with  a  few 
years  of  high  school  or  with  only  grammar  school 
education,  the  latter  of  which  may  or  may  not  have 
been  supplemented  by  courses  in  private  business 
schools.^  These  inadequately  equipped  people,  however, 
appear  in  decreasing  proportions  in  the  higher  wage 
groups.  They  constitute  almost  two-thirds  (63.6  per 
cent)  of  those  earning  $8  but  less  than  $12;  52.5  per  cent 
earning  from  $12  to  $15,  but  only  29.5  per  cent  earning 
$15  or  more. 

Even  more  necessary  is  an  adequate  preparation  in  an 
occupation  requiring  technical  skill  as  well  as  general 
education  such  as  that  of  the  stenographer  and  typist. 
Almost  one-half  (48.3  per  cent)  of  the  439  stenographers 
were  high  school  graduates,  but  more  than  one-half  of 
these  had  had  additional  technical  training.  (See 
Table  27.)  Three-fourths  (75.9  per  cent)  of  the  gradu- 
ates with  this  additional  training  earned  $12  and  over. 
(See  Table  29.)  In  contrast  to  this,  less  than  one-half 
(48.9  per  cent)  of  the  graduates  who  did  not  go  to  business 
school  and  about  the  same  proportion  (54  per  cent)  of 
the  non-graduates  with  additional  training  earned  $12 
and  over.  Intensive  technical  training  apparently  gives 
to  the  high  school  non-graduate,  whether  a  stenographer 
or  a  clerk,  the  equipment  necessary  to  compete  success- 
full}'  with  the  high  school  graduate  without  additional 
training.  The  educational  equipment  of  these  two 
types  of  workers,  the  clerks  and  stenographers,  is, 
however,  just  reversed.  Sixty-two  per  cent  (02.1  ])er 
cent)  of  the  clerks  had  not  had  a  high  school  education 

'  172  clerks  earned  less  than  $8;  131,  or  76.1  per  cent,  had  only  afew  years'  high  school  or 
a  grammar  school  education.     (See  Table  28.) 


130 


WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 


or  its  equivalent,^  while  an  even  larger  proportion 
(71.1  per  cent)  of  the  stenographers  had  had  this  amount 
for  a  background.     (See  Table  27.) 

The  greater  length  of  time  spent  in  preparation  has  a 
gratifying  financial  compensation.  Less  than  one-fourth 
(23.1   per  cent)    of  the  stenographers  did  not  have  a 


Table  29. —  Showing  Wages  of  439  Stenographers  and  Typists  as  Influenced 

by  Schooling. 


Stenographers  Earning  Specified  Wage 
Schooling. 

BT  Specified 

Schooling. 

less  than 
$8. 

$8    AND    less 
THAN    $12. 

$12  AND  LESS 
THAN    $15. 

$15    AND 
OVER. 

Total. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

4 

1.9 

72 

34.0 

69 

32.5 

67 

31.6 

212 

With  business  college  training 

Without  business  college  training. . . 

1 
3 

0.8 
3.3 

28 
44 

23.3 

47.8 

49 
20 

40.9 
21.7 

42 
25 

35.0 
27.2 

120 
92 

High  school  non-graduates 

10 

6.1 

81 

49.7 

39 

23.9 

33 

20.3 

163 

With  business  college  training 

Without  business  college  training. . . 

9 
1 

9.0 
1.6 

37 
44 

37.0 
69.9 

33 
6 

33.0 
9.5 

21 
12 

21.0 
19.0 

100 
63 

8 

21.0 

12 

31.  G 

9 

23.7 

9 

23.7 

38 

With  business  college  training 

8 

24.2 

10 
2 

30.3 
40.0 

9 

27.3 

6 
3 

18.2 
60.0 

33 

5 

21 

80.8 

4 

15.4 

1 

3.8 

26 

Total 

22 

5.0 

186 

42.4 

121 

27.6 

110 

25.0 

439 

high  school  education  or  its  equivalent,'^  and  a  compara- 
tively small  proportion  (47.4  per  cent)  earned  less  than 
$12.  (See  Table  29.)  Almost  two-thirds  of  the  clerks 
(62.1  per  cent)  had  not  had  a  high  school  education,  nor 
its  equivalent,  and  a  very  large  proportion  (7G  per  cent) 
earned  less  than  SI 2.    (See  Table  28.)    The  stenographers 

'  That  is,  high  school  graduates  or  high  school  pupils  who  supplemented  several  years 
in  high  school  by  special  technical  tr.iining. 

'That  is,  only  23.1  per  cent  were  not  high  school  graduates  or  had  not  supplemented 
several  years  in  high  school  by  additional  business  college  training.     (Sec  Table  27.) 


WAGES.  131 

who  had  not  attended  high  school  formed  such  a 
small  proportion  (8.7  per  cent)  of  the  439  studied  (see 
Table  27)  that  comparison  with  those  of  higher  educa- 
tion seemed  unwise.  This  small  proportion  (8.7  per 
cent)  of  stenographers,  without  high  school  training,  is 
of  interest,  however,  as  compared  with  the  very  much 
larger  proportion  (21.9  per  cent)  of  inadequately  trained 
clerks. 

Wages  of  stenographers  as  well  as  of  clerks  similarly 
reflect  the  worker's  educational  equipment,  though  not 
in  such  a  directly  ascending  scale,  since  the  great 
majority  (71.2  per  cent)  of  the  former  had  had  a  high 
school  education  or  its  equivalent.  Almost  three-fifths 
(58.6  per  cent)  of  those  earning  $8  but  less  than  $12,  and 
more  than  four-fifths  (82.3  per  cent)  of  those  earning 
$12  and  over,  had  had  a  high  school  education  or  its 
equivalent.^ 

Experience  as  well  as  preliminary  equipment,  how- 
ever, determines  to  a  certain  extent  the  wage  within 
the  particular  occupation.  The  accompanying  chart 
shows  the  decreasing  number  with  a  short  working 
experience  in  the  increasing  wage  groups.  Thus,  95.8 
per  cent  of  the  clerks  earning  less  than  S8  had  less  than 
five  years'  experience.  But  with  increasing  wage,  80.4 
per  cent  of  those  earning  $8  and  less  than  $10,  45  per 
cent  of  those  earning  $10  and  less  than  $12,  21.4  per 
cent  of  those  earning  $12  and  less  than  $15,  and  only 
16.4  per  cent  of  those  earning  $15  and  over  had  worked 
less  than  five  years.  (See  Chart  VIII.)  So,  also,  is 
there  a  very  apparent  relation  between  the  experience 
and  the  wage  of  the  stenographers,  but  many  of  these 
skilled  workers  can  earn  $12  or  more  in  a  much  shorter 
time.  Thus,  78.6  per  cent  of  the  clerks  and  only  37.9 
per  cent  of  the  stenographers  worked  five  years  or  more 
to  earn  $12  and  less  than  $15.  The  $15  wage  expressing 
ability  and  responsibility  requires  about  the  same 
length  of  experience  for  the  stenographer  as  for  the  clerk, 

'  Of  1S(>  stonogrnphera  oarniiiK  $8  and  less  than  $12,  109,  or  5S.0  per  cent,  and  of  231 
8tenographcr8  earning  $12  and  over,  190,  or  82.3  per  cent,  were  high  school  graduates  or 
non-graduates  with  additional  business  college  training.     (See  Table  29.) 


132  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

more  than  four-fifths  of  the  workers  in  both  occupations 
working  more  than  five  years.  The  chief  difference  is 
that  a  much  larger  proportion  of  the  stenographers  (25 
per  cent)  than  of  the  clerks  (9  per  cent)  were  able  to  reach 
the  Slo  wage.  So,  also,  must  a  larger  proportion  of  the 
clerks  work  ten  years  or  more  to  earn  $12  and  over. 
Thus,  25.8  per  cent  of  the  clerks  and  only  4.3  per  cent 
of  the  stenographers  earning  $12  and  less  than  $15 
had  worked  ten  yesiYs  or  more.  Again,  there  was  a 
difference  in  length  of  working  experience  necessary  to 
earn  $15  or  more  in  the  two  occupations;  47.2  per  cent 
of  the  clerks  and  37.1  per  cent  of  the  stenographers 
having  had  ten  years  or  more  experience. 

The  length  of  working  experience  of  the  members  of  the 
two  groups  is,  however,  surprisingly  similar.  Almost 
tw^o-thirds  of  the  women  in  both  occupations  had  worked 
less  than  five  years;  one-fourth,  five  and  less  than  ten 
years,  and  one-tenth,  ten  years  and  over.  The  great 
difference  in  wages  of  clerks  and  stenographers  as  a 
class,  therefore,  cannot  be  ascribed  to  any  difference 
in  the  length  of  working  experience.  The  length  of 
experience  requisite  to  earn  a  particular  wage  is,  how- 
ever, determined,  in  a  large  degree,  by  the  amount  and 
adequacy  of  the  training,  as  observed  in  the  comparative 
length  of  experience  of  stenographers  and  clerks  earning 
the  same  wages.  Among  both  clerks  and  stenographers 
education  has  fitted  many  to  reach  high  wages  in  much 
less  time  than  those  who  have  not  had  the  advantage 
of  an  adequate  preparation.  Since  the  office  worker 
represents  such  a  variety  of  educational  background, 
and  consequently  a  great  variation  in  the  requisite 
time  necessary  to  reach  a  specified  wage,  the  median  or 
middle  girl  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  representative  of  the 
various  wage  groups.  If  1G3^  clerks  arranged  in  order 
of  length  of  experience  earned  $8  and  less  than  $10, 
the  experience  of  the  82d  girl  might  be  regarded 
as  a  fair  estimate  of  the  length  of  time  necessary  to 

'See  Table  30,  page  135;  194  clerks,   minus  31  UDclassified  by  length  of  experience, 
leaves  163,  which  is  taken  as  the  basis  of  discussion. 


WAGES. 


133 


Chart  VIII. —  Showing  Wages  of  Clerks  and  Stenographers  by  Length 

of  Experience. 


CLERKS. 
131  80 


Less  than  S8. 


SS  and  less 
than  SrO. 


$10  and  (ess  $12  and  less  $15  and  over, 

than  $12.  than  $15. 


Per 
Cent. 

100 

80_ 


60_ 


22 


105 


STENOGRAPHERS 
63  116 

m 


105 


439* 


40_ 


20_ 


Less  than  $8. 


$,S  and  less 
than  $10. 


$10  and  less 
than  $12. 


$12  and  Ics 
than  $15. 


$15  and  over.  Total. 


KEY:      10  vears  and  over,  H     5  years  and  under  10.   j^^       Under  S  years.     1      I 


'  Tho  number  C73  includes  70  uiirlassified  as  to  experience.     Graph  based  on  605. 
'The  number  439  includes  28  unclassified  as  to  experience.     Graph  baaed  on  411. 


134  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 

reach  this  wage,  since  one-half  did  not  require  more 
and  one-half  did  not  require  less  time.  A  clerk  ma}'', 
therefore,  expect  to  work  at  least  two  years  to  earn  a 
wage  of  $8  or  $9  a  week.  She  may  expect  to  work  five 
years  to  earn  $10  and  less  than  $12,  seven  years  to 
earn  $12  and  less  than  $15,  and  ten  years  or  more  to 
earn  $18.  (See  Table  30.)  The  middle  girl,  however, 
does  not  represent  the  greatest  possibilities  nor  the 
wage  opportunities  even  for  the  majority.  As  in 
school,  a  small  proportion  of  the  pupils  can  grasp 
the  essentials  in  a  much  shorter  time  and  with  less 
effort  than  the  majority,  so  is  this  true  also  in  the 
business  office.  No  great  difference  between  the  length 
of  experience  of  the  median  and  of  the  majority  of  clerks 
appears  under  the  $10  wage,  but  since  $10  or  more 
represents  some  degree  of  ability  the  difference  here 
becomes  apparent.  If  three-fourths  of  the  163  clerks 
earning  $10  and  less  than  $12  have  worked  three  years 
or  more,  those  33  who  have  reached  this  wage  in  a 
shorter  time  had  special  qualifications,  either  in  educa- 
tional equipment  or  personal  ability.  Over  one-half  (17) 
were  high  school  graduates  or  the  equivalent.^  Such 
a  background,  as  has  been  shown,  is  not  characteristic 
of  the  occupation  as  a  whole,  less  than  one-third  of  the 
675  clerks  studied  having  had  this  amount  of  prepara- 
tion. (See  Table  27.)  Twelve  dollars  or  more,  as  has 
also  been  shown,  is  reached  only  by  the  most  able  clerks, 
less  than  one-fourth  of  the  675  studied.  Over  three- 
fourths  (78.6  per  cent)  of  those  earning  $12  and  less 
than  $15  had  worked  five  years  or  more.  Those  (19) 
who  were  capable  of  earning  this  wage  in  less  than  five 
years,  therefore,  deserve  special  attention.  Fourteen 
of  the  19  were  high  school  graduates,  five  of  whom  had 
had  additional  business  school  training.  Six  of  these 
14  high  school  graduates  had  reached  this  wage  in  less 
than  three  years. 

WTiile  the  girl  with  an  adequate  preliminary  prepara- 

>  Six  bad  supplemented  an  incomplete  high  Bchool  course  by  training  at  a  private  business 
college. 


WAGES. 


135 


tion  has  a  decided  advantage  in  the  length  of  time 
required  to  reach  S12  or  more,  many  girls  without  such 
training  may,  through  natural  ability  and  hard  work, 
reach  an  adequate  wage  after  longer  experience.  Almost 
three-fourths  of  the  70  clerks  who  earned  S12  and  less 


Table   30.— Showing  Wages   of   675   Clerks   and   439   Stenographers   by  Length   of 

Experience. 1 


Length  of  Expebience. 


Numbers  Earning  Specified  Wage  by  Specified  Length  of 
Experience. 


mo 

^w 

S» 

T)  a 

-a  a 

a  OS 

a  o! 

05  ja 

<SJS 

CO 

00 

t» 

e» 

a  > 
ooO 


stenographers. 


o*> 


oc  c 


Under  1  year 

1  year  and  under  2 . .  . 

2  years  and  under  3 .  . 

3  years  and  under  4 .  .  . 

4  years  and  under  5 .  . . 

5  years  and  under  6 .  .  . 

6  years  and  under  7 .  .  . 

7  years  and  under  8 .  .  . 

8  years  and  under  9 .  .  . 

9  years  and  under  10 .  . 

10  years  and  under  15. 
1 5  years  and  under  20 . 

20  years  and  over 

Unclassified 


31 


16 


1 
1 
2 
1 
2 
3 
5 
2 
1 
3 
10 
3 
1 
2 


102 
106 
74 
50 
4^ 
4S 

H 

25 
45 
10 


70 


10 


156 
179 
126 
93 
87 
83 
56 
49 
43 
36 
75 
19 
14 


Total . 


41 


131 


194 


147 


101 


37 


24 


67£ 


22 


113 


73 


121 


78 


32    439 


1,114 


>  1,114  cases  studied  from  the  offices. 


than  $15  after  a  working  experience  of  five  or  more 
years,  were  not  high  school  graduates,  but  those  few 
who  did  graduate  had  a  decided  advantage.  Two-fifths 
of  the  high  school  graduates,  as  compared  with  less  than 
one-tenth  (9.4  per  cent)  of  those  without  this  equipment, 
reached  this  wage  in  less  than  five  vears.     As  almost 


136  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

one-fourth  (21.3  per  cent)  of  the  89^  clerks  earning  $12 
to  S15  had  worked  less  than  five  years,  so  also  one-fourth 
(25.8  per  cent)  had  worked  ten  years  or  more,  and  one- 
half  of  the  latter  had  not  had  a  high  school  education 
or  its  equivalent.  Thus,  more  than  one-half  (52.8  per 
cent)  of  the  clerks  who  earned  $12  and  less  than  $15 
worked  five  years  and  less  than  ten  years.  Less  than 
one-tenth  (9  per  cent)  of  the  clerks  earned  $15  or  more. 
Almost  three-fourths  (70.6  per  cent)  of  these  had  had 
a  high  school  education  or  its  equivalent  and  the  same 
proportion  required  six  years  or  more  to  reach  this  wage. 
Ten  of  the  twelve  who  earned  $15  or  more  in  less  than 
six  years  were  high  school  and  college  graduates. 

The  majority  of  the  clerks  must,  therefore,  have  a 
minimum  experience  of  three  years  to  earn  $10  and  less 
than  $12;  of  five  years  to  earn  $12  and  less  than  $15; 
and  of  six  years  to  earn  $15  or  more.  One-fourth  of 
the  women  in  each  wage  group  have  been  able  to  reach 
this  wage  in  less  time  but  with  more  preliminary  equip- 
ment than  is  characteristic  of  the  group.  On  the  other 
hand,  women  with  a  limited  education  but  with  ability 
and  application  do  have  the  opportunity  to  earn  $12  or 
more  with  a  longer  working  experience. 

Since  the  educational  background  and  the  wage  of 
the  stenographer  is  higher  than  that  of  the  clerk,  so  also 
is  the  requisite  time  to  reach  the  same  wage  shorter. 
The  median  stenographer  or  middle  girl  reached  $8  and 
less  than  $10  in  one  year,  $10  and  less  than  $12  in  two 
years.  Four  years  were  necessary  for  the  middle  girl 
to  earn  $12  and  less  than  $15;  seven  years  to  earn  $15 
and  less  than  $18;  and  ten  years  or  more  to  earn  $18 
and  over.  Both  the  median  clerk  and  the  median 
stenographer  required  about  the  same  length  of  time 
to  reach  the  high  wage  of  $15  or  more,  showing  that  the 
woman  earning  this  wage,  whether  called  a  clerk  or  a 
stenographer,  represents  much  the  same  degree  of 
ability  and  responsibility. 

1  101  clerks  earned  $12   and  less   than   $15.    Since  12  are  unclassified   by  length  of 
experience,  89  are  taken  as  a  basis  for  study. 


WAGES. 


137 


Chart  IX. —  Showing  Relation  of  Schooling  and  Experience  to  Wage. 

(The  section  below  the  black  dividing  line  signifies  a  wage  of  less  than 
$10.  The  section  above  signifies  a  wage  of  $10  or  more.  Five  years'  expe- 
rience and  over  is  shown  thus  ■) 


High  School 
QraJuatr 
wlthoul 
Addilional 
Training. 


High  School 

Non-Qraduata 

with 

Additioiu) 

Training. 


High  School 

Qrammar 

arammar 

School 

School 

with 

without 

Additional 

Additional 

Additional 

Training. 

Training. 

Training. 

STENOGRAPHERS. 


100 

120 

W 

iOO 

62 

ii 

413' 

m 

60 

= 

40 





^^ 

20) 

0_ 



High  School 

High  School 

High  School 

High  School 

Grammar 

Graduate 

Non-Oraduate 

Non-Oraduate 

with 

uilh 

•  Hhoul 

Additional 

Additional 

AdJilional 

Additional 

Additional 

Training. 

Training 

Training. 

Training. 

Training. 

•This  total  includt^a  5  who  had  Grammar  School  Training  without  Additional  Training, 
but  not  2G  unclassified  by  schooling. 

'  22  unclassified  by  schooling  not  included  in  this  total. 


138  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

Experience  or  special  equipment  are  most  clearly 
expressed  in  the  wage  of  $12  and  over.  ]\Iore  than  one- 
half  (52. G  per  cent)  of  the  stenographers  earned  S12  or 
more,  which,  for  the  majority  (71.4  per  cent),  required 
a  minimum  experience  of  three  years.  All  of  the  (34) 
stenographers  who  earned  $12  and  less  than  $15  with 
less  than  three  years'  experience  were  high  school  grad- 
uates or  the  equivalent.  More  than  one-third  (37.9 
per  cent)  of  those  earning  this  wage  had  worked  five  or 
more  years,  and  three-fourths  of  these,  as  in  the  occu- 
pation as  a  whole,  had  a  high  school  education  or  its 
equivalent.  Twelve  to  fifteen  dollars  is  the  maximum 
wage  in  many  offices,  and  is  also  the  maximum  earned 
by  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  439  stenographers  studied. 
Only  one-fourth  (25.0  per  cent)  of  the  439  stenographers 
earned  $15  or  more,  and  four-fifths  (80  per  cent)  of 
these  had  had  a  high  school  education  or  its  equivalent. 
The  majority  had  had  a  minimum  working  experience 
of  five  years.  All  but  two  of  the  nineteen  who  earned 
$15  or  more  in  less  than  five  years  were  high  school 
gradulates  or  the  equivalent ;  two  were  college  graduates. 
More  than  one-half  (54.3  per  cent),  however,  had 
worked  eight  years  or  more. 

The  accompanying  chart  (See  Chart  IX)  summarizes 
in  a  graphic  way  the  influence  of  education  in  determin- 
ing the  length  of  experience  necessary  to  earn  $10  or 
more.  Increasing  proportions  of  workers  with  decreas- 
ing educational  background  must  work  five  years  or 
more  to  earn  $10  and  over.  The  stenographers  who 
have  graduated  from  high  school,  or,  failing  to  graduate, 
have  supplemented  their  education  at  a  private  business 
school,  have  required  practically  the  same  length  of 
experience  to  earn  the  same  wage.  'While  the  clerks 
who  are  high  school  graduates  and  the  high  school  non- 
graduates  with  additional  training,  likewise  seem  to 
have  a  similar  earning  capacity,  those  not  graduating 
have  had  to  work  longer  to  earn  the  same  wage  as  that 
secured  by  the  graduates. 

College  graduates  have  a  similar  financial  advantage 


WAGES.  139 

over  girls  who  have  not  gone  to  college.^  Over  three- 
fifths  (42.1  per  cent)  of  the  361  secretaries  studied  by 
Miss  Post,  who  had  had  college  training,  secured  a 
salary  of  $15  and  over  with  less  than  six  years'  experi- 
ence in  contrast  to  only  one-fourth  (26.1  per  cent)  of 
322  without  college  training,  who  reached  this  wage 
within  six  years.  Even  more  noticeable  is  the  large 
proportion  (30.5  per  cent)  of  college-trained  secretaries 
who  secured  $15  or  over  in  less  than  four  years  in 
contrast  to  only  7.1  per  cent  of  the  non-college  secretaries. 

Education  and  especially  college  graduation,  there- 
fore, gives  many  girls  that  intangible  power  of  adapta- 
bility and  responsibility  which  constitute  the  funda- 
mental asset  for  success.  Yet  this  power  does  not 
come  to  all  who  have  had  these  educational  advantages. 
There  are  instances  among  both  the  stenographers  and 
clerks  of  the  high  school  graduates  with  and  without 
additional  training,  who  have  worked  six  years  or  more 
and  are  only  receiving  from  $6  to  $9  in  the  case  of  the 
clerks,  and  from  $8  to  $10  or  $11  among  the  stenogra- 
phers. There  is  one  instance  of  a  stenographer,  a 
college  graduate,  with  technical  training,  who,  after  five 
years  of  experience,  is  still  receiving  only  SIO.  Instances 
like  these  are  uncommon,  but  they  point  out  that  it  is 
the  girl  plus  the  education  who  rises  in  the  business 
office.  If  possible  then,  the  schools  should  try  even 
harder  than  now  to  prevent  the  girl  who  is  unfitted  for 
the  work  from  adopting  the  profession  for  which  she 
has  no  aptitude  or  possibility  for  success. 

It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  increased  education  in 
general  increases  efficiency  and  earning  capacity  and 
has  a  permanent  effect  upon  a  girl's  commercial  experi- 
ence. It  fits  her  above  others  for  responsible  and 
therefore  well-paid  positions.  In  addition  to  this,  it 
enables  her  to  attain  a  good  position  with  as  little  as 
possible  of  the  drudgery  of  poorly-paid  and  monotonous 
work.     It  has  long  been  realized   that   public   school 

"  Department  of  Research,  Women's  Educational  and  Industrial  Union,  Vocaliona  for 
the  Trained  Woman,  Part  II,  Oi)i)ortunilie3  in  Secretarial  Service,  page  129,  Table  1. 


140  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 

training  is  invaluable  to  a  stenographer.  It  has  not 
been  so  clearly  recognized  that  education  is  as  necessary 
to  the  clerical  worker  who  wishes  to  win  success  in  her 
profession.  Doubtless,  in  the  plans  for  the  new  clerical 
high  school/  the  needs  of  this  large  class  of  workers 
will  be  recognized.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be 
placed,  however,  on  the  benefit  to  all  workers  in  office 
service  which  is  derived  from  an  education  which 
enables  them  to  become  intelligent,  resourceful  and 
accurate.  Emploj^ers  demand  these  qualities  in  the 
workers  to  whom  they  will  offer  the  positions  of  respon- 
sibility and  initiative.  It  may  be  claimed  by  some  that 
the  girl  who  goes  to  work  as  a  clerk  has  done  so  because 
she  was  unable  to  finish  high  school.  More  than  one- 
fourth  (29  per  cent)  of  the  679  clerks,  however,  did 
graduate  from  high  school.  One-half  (45.8  per  cent) 
attended  high  school,  although  they  did  not  graduate, 
while  only  21.9  per  cent  did  not  go  beyond  grammar 
school.-  There  is  opportunity  then  as  well  as  need  for 
high  school  training  of  at  least  three  years,  especially 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  clerical  workers. 

The  public  schools  have  tried  an  intensified  course  of 
two  years'  work  for  stenographers,  which  was  open  to 
grammar  school  graduates  as  well  as  to  more  mature 
pupils.  The  lack  of  maturity  and  general  education 
which  is  required  of  a  stenographer,  however,  seems  to 
have  disqualified  most  of  these  young  and  inadequately 
equipped  pupils.  Office  technique,  experience  in  filing 
and  knowledge  of  the  simpler  office  machines  can  be 
secured,  however,  within  three  years,,  and  would  give 
the  girl  who  is  entering  clerical  work  a  wider  view  of  the 
immediate  work  and  future  possibilities. 

While  much  thought  and  effort  has  already  been 
expended  by  the  public  school  in  preparing  the  girl  for 
office  work,  special  emphasis  has  been  given  to  the 
training  of  the  stenographer.  The  majority  (60.3  per 
cent)  of  the  310  girls  secured  through  the  schools, 
therefore,   were   stenographers.     Only  45   were   clerks, 

'  See  Chapter  I,  page  12.  »  See  Table  28,  page  128. 


WAGES. 


141 


21  were  secretaries  and  57  bookkeepers.  As  they  had 
all  left  school  recently  and  very  few^  had  been  at  work 
more  than  six  years,  they  have  been  compared  only 
with  office  workers  with  the  same  length  of  experience. 
More  than  one-half  (52.6  per  cent)  of  the  310  office 
workers  studied  through  the  schools,  earned  SIO  and 
over,  as  contrasted  with  45.4  per  cent  of  those  repre- 


Table   31. —  Showing   Wage   by   Schooling   of    187   Stenographers 
Secured  through  the  Schools. 


Number  Earning  Wage  bt 
Specified  Schooling. 

Total. 

Schooling. 

00 
c 

03 
l-I 

Old 

'o  S 
c  5 

OO  '^ 

§2 

% 

a 

o 
S 

3 

a 

V 

O 
o 

High  school  graduates 

12 

86 

41 

11 

150 

80  2 

With  additional  training 

1 
11 

14 

72 

17 
24 

6 
5 

38 
112 

20  3 

Without  additional  training 

59  9 

High  school  non-graduates 

8 

18 

3 

1 

30 

16.1 

With  additional  training 

1 
7 

9 
9 

3 

1 

13 

17 

7  0 

Without  additional  training 

9  1 

Grammar  school  pupils 

6 

1 

7 

3  7 

With  additional  training 

5 
1 

1 

6 

1 

3  2 

Without  additional  training 

Total 

20 

110 

45 

12 

187 

100  0 

senting  a  similar  length  of  experience  secured  through 
offices.  (See  Table  32.)  This  difference  is  not  strange 
since  the  majority  of  the  school  group  are  high  school 
graduates  and  a  very  few  are  clerks,  while  the  wages  of 
those  secured  through  offices  were  lowered  by  the  large 
number  of  clerks  and  of  women  without  a  high  school 
education.  Although  high  school  graduates  or  the  equiv- 
alent constituted  more  than  four-fifths  (87.2  per  cent) 

'  Twenty  had  more  than  six  years  of  experience:  2  clerks,  6  bookkeepers,  5  stenographers 
and  7  secretaries. 


142  WOMEN   IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

of  the  187  stenographers^  secured  through  the  schools, 
only  30.5  per  cent  earned  $12  or  more,  as  contrasted 
with  41.2  per  cent  of  the  311  stenographers  studied 
from  offices.     (See  Table  32.) 

But  this  seeming  discrepancy  does  not  contradict 
the  principle  that  greater  education  increases  the  earn- 
ing capacity.  On  the  contrary,  it  emphasizes  the 
advantage  of  additional  intensive  technical  training. 
Only  one-fourth  of  the  large  number  of  graduates  among 
the  stenographers  studied  from  the  schools  had  had  addi- 
tional technical  training  in  private  business  schools.  On 
the  other  hand,  more  than  one-half  (54.9  per  cent)  of  the 
high  school  graduates  with  less  than  seven  years'  expe- 
rience secured  from  offices  had  had  additional  training 
and  perhaps,  because  of  this  training,  more  than  three- 
fifths  (69  per  cent)  were  able  to  earn  $12  or  more.  So, 
too,  three-fifths  of  those  stenographers  secured  through 
the  schools  who  had  graduated  and  then  had  additional 
technical  training  earned  $12  or  more  in  contrast  to  only 
one-fourth  of  the  graduates  without  this  additional  train- 
ing. (See  Table  31.)  Practically  the  same  proportion,  one- 
fourth,  who  earned  $12  and  over,  is  found  among  the  13 
non-graduates,  who  had  had  additional  business  school 
training,  while  only  one  of  the  17  non-graduates  without 
special  training  reached  $12  or  more.  Again  additional 
business  school  training  seems  for  the  non-graduate 
to  be  an  equivalent  for  graduation,  at  least  in  as  far  as 
its  effect  in  helping  her  to  reach  $12.  The  stenographers, 
then,  secured  through  the  schools  have  reached  prac- 
tically the  same  wages  as  those  studied  from  the  offices, 
when  due  account  is  taken  of  their  schooling  and  expe- 
rience. The  seeming  discrepancy  is  really  an  added 
argument  in  favor  of  additional  business  training  for 
stenographers.  Intensive  technical  training,  when  added 
to  a  thorough  general  education,  seems  to  give  the  girl 
the  skill  and  inteUigence  which  fits  her  above  others  for 
positions   of   responsibility   and   importance,    positions 

•  See  Table  31.     80.2  per  cent  were  hiRh  school  graduates;  7.0  per  cent  were  high  school 
non-graduates  with  additional  technical  training. 


WAGES. 


143 


which  pay  the  higher  wages.  This  conclusion  yields 
a  valuable  suggestion  to  the  public  high  schools  in  the 
formulation  of  their  curriculum. 

Education  not  only  shortens  the  time  necessary  to 
receive  an  adequate  wage  but  also  gives  the  girl  the 
further  advantage  of  a  higher  initial  wage.  More  than 
three-fourths  (77.1  per  cent)  of  the  306  clerks  considered 
from  offices  began  with  an  initial  wage  of  less  than  88. 


Table  32.—  Comparing  the  Present  Wage  of  806  Office  Workers 
with  a  Working  Experience  of  Six  Years  or  Less  with  310 
Secured  from  the  Schools. 


Number  of  Workers  from 

Offices  Earning  Specified 

Wage. 

Number  of  Workers  fro.m 

Schools  Earning  Specified 

Wage. 

m 

total. 

M 

total. 

o 
ji 
0. 

a 

.2 
1 

O. 

o 
o 

to 

o 

J3 
O, 

2 

a 
S 
m 

•E 

OS 

1 

t 

2 

O 

u 
o 

a, 

Z 

a 

o 

a 

165 
151 

22 
100 

187 
253 

23.2 
31.4 

21 
11 

20 
65 

15 
15 

56 
91 

18.0 

$8  and  less  than  $10 

2 

29.4 

$10  and  less  than  $12.  .  . 

97 

61 

1 

1 

160 

20.0 

5 

45 

15 

65 

21.0 

$12  and  less  than  $15.  .  . 

38 

95 

4 

3 

140 

17.3 

7 

45 

5 

7 

64 

20.7 

$15  and  less  than  $20 .  .  . 

16 

32 

7 

2 

57 

7.0 

1 

12 

12 

5 

30 

9.7 

$20  and  less  than  $25 

1 

1 

.] 

9 

? 

.6 

2 

C 

.... 

8 

1.0 

2 

2 

.6 

Total 

409 

311 

18 

8 

806 

100.0 

45 

187 

21 

57 

310 

100.0 

Less  than  two-thirds  (63.4  per  cent)  of  the  123  clerks 
with  high  school  training  or  its  equivalent,  however, 
began  at  less  than  $8,  as  compared  with  more  than  four- 
fifths  (86.5  per  cent)  of  the  178  without  a  high  school 
background.  A  little  more  than  one-half  (55  per  cent) 
of  the  238  stenographers  as  compared  with  three- 
fourths  of  the  clerks  began  with  an  initial  wage  of  less 
than  $8.  While  a  negligible  proportion  (11.3  per  cent) 
of  the  stenographers  began  with  less  than  S6,  almost 
one-half  of  the  clerks  (48  per  cent)  started  with  this  low 


144 


WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 


initial  wage.  This  is  not  surprising  since  there  is  in 
many  of  the  large  offices  a  great  deal  of  clerical  work 
which  is  little  more  than  manual  work.  IVIore  than 
four-fifths  (82.9  per  cent)  of  the  stenographers  report- 
ing their  beginning  wage  as  compared  with  only  two- 
fifths  (40.2  per  cent)  of  the  clerks  had  had  a  high 
school   education   or   its   equivalent. 

The  same  vital  relation  is  found  between  the  wage 
and  the  education  of  the  stenographer  studied  through 

Table  ii. —  Comparing  Beginning  Wage  of  593   Women  Secured 
from   Offices,  and  305  Women  Secured  from   the  Schools. 


Office  Workers  Secured 
Through  Offices. 

Office  Workers  Secured 
Through  Schools. 

Beginning  Wage. 

o 

a, 
£ 

a 
2 

02 

•c 

o 

m 

£ 

o 

(U 

o 
o 

m 

TOTAL. 

1 

o 

0. 
a 

1 
o 
o 

2 

o 

a 
<a 
o 

o 

o 
O 

TOTAL. 

1 

a 

i 

.a 
E 

3 

O 

a" 

147 

89 
47 
16 

7 

27 

104 

75 

23 

9 

3 

2 

8 
7 
8 

5 

4 
6 
4 
2 

182 

199 

136 

50 

26 

30.6 

33.6 

23.0 

8.4 

4.4 

21 
12 
11 

23 

68 

72 

11 

9 

3 

7 
6 
5 

14 

28 

10 

5 

61 

115 

99 

21 

9 

20.0 

S6  and  less  than  S8.  .  . 
$8  and  less  than  $10. . . 
$10  and  less  than  $12.. 

37.7 

32.5 

6.9 

2.9 

Total 

306 

238 

28 

21 

593  » 

100.0 

44 

183 

21 

57 

1305 

100.0 

•  Beginning  wage  not  reported  by  office  workers  secured  through  offices  —  369  clerks, 
201  stenographers,  6  secretaries,  8  bookkeepers.  Office  workers  secured  through  schools — 
1  clerk,  4  stenographers.     See  Chapter  1,  page  21,  for  explanation  of   those  not  reporting. 


the  schools.  While  about  one-half  (49.2  per  cent)  of  the 
stenographers  from  the  offices  who  had  had  high  school 
training  or  its  equivalent,  in  contrast  to  24.4  per  cent  of 
the  few  (41)  who  had  not  secured  this  necessary  educa- 
tion, began  at  $8  and  over,  there  is  an  even  wider 
difference  among  the  stenographers  from  the  schools. 
Over  one-half  (53.4  per  cent)  of  the  163  with  a  high  school 
education  or  its  equivalent,  as  compared  with  only 
one-sixth  of  the  few  (24)  without  this  education,  secured 
$8  and  over  as  a  beginning  wage.     In  addition  to  this 


WAGES. 


145 


advantage  given  to  the  stenographer  by  a  thorough 
general  education,  further  technical  training  helps 
her  to  a  still  higher  wage.  Almost  two-thirds  (62.4 
per  cent)  of  those  high  school  graduates  from  the  offices 
who  went  to  business  school  began  work  with  S8  or 
more,  while  less  than  one-third  of  the  graduates  who 
did  not  take  this  additional  training  were  able  to  earn 


Table  34. —  Showing  Relation  between  the  Beginning  Wage  and 
Schooling  of   187  Stenographers  Studied  from   the  Schools. 


Number  Earning  Specified  Wage 
BY  Specified  Schooling. 

Total. 

Schooling. 

«6 
•» 

a 

o 

M 

-a  a 
a  a 

•» 

.£55 

-c  a 

C  OS 

li 

o 

> 
o 

-0 

a 

as 
m 

1 

u 

a 

o 
S 

3 

■z. 

6 

ex, 

17 

51 

64 

8 

7 

2 

1 

150 

80.2 

With  business  school  training. .  . 
Without  business  school  training, 

3 
14 

9 
42 

18 
46 

4 
4 

2 
5 

1 
1 

1 

38 
112 

20.3 
59.9 

High  school  non-graduates 

7 

13 

7 

1 

2 

30 

16.1 

With  business  school  training.. .  . 
Without  business  school  training, 

1 
6 

4 
9 

5 
2 

1 

2 

13 
17 

7.0 

9.1 

4 

1 

1 

1 

7 

3.7 

4 

1 

1 

6 

1 

3.2 

1 

.05 

Total 

24 

68 

72 

10 

7 

2 

4 

187 

100  0 

this  initial  wage.  The  38  high  school  graduates  with 
additional  technical  training  among  the  stenographers 
from  the  schools  had  a  similar  advantage.  About 
two- thirds  began  at  $8  and  over,  as  compared  with 
one-half  of  the  graduates  with  no  further  training. 

While  general  education  is,  therefore,  essential  for 
success  in  the  long  run,  the  technical  skill  secured  by 
intensive   study  given  by  the  private  business  schools 


146  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

has  a  very  apparent  influence  in  determining  the  initial 
wage.  Stenographers,  whose  work  involves  technical 
skill,  are  especially  the  ones  who  profit  by  this  technical 
preparation.  The  bookkeepers  and  secretaries  also  had 
special  preparation.  Almost  two-thirds  of  the  few 
bookkeepers  studied  from  the  offices  had  a  high  school 
education  or  the  equivalent,  and  more  than  one-half 
began  with  $8  or  more.^  All  but  one  of  the  28  secre- 
taries- had  a  high  school  education  or  its  equvalent,  and 
four-fifths  began  with  $8  or  more. 

Beginning  wage  is,  therefore,  to  a  great  extent  deter- 
mined by  education.  Does  the  age  at  which  the  girl 
begins  clerical  work  have  a  similar  influence  on  her 
beginning  wage?  Four-fifths  (86.8  per  cent)  of  those 
studied  from  the  schools  began  work  before  they  were 
twenty  years  of  age,  and  61  per  cent  started  at  less 
than  $8.  Two-fifths  began  before  they  were  eighteen 
and  67.7  per  cent  began  at  less  than  $8.  The  worker 
studied  from  the  offices  began  office  work  at  a  more 
mature  age,  since  several  had  worked  previously  in 
other  occupations.  A  similar  relation  is  evident,  how- 
ever. Two-thirds  began  before  they  were  twenty  years 
old  and  61.5  per  cent  of  these  started  at  less  than  S8. 
About  one-third  began  before  they  were  eighteen  and 
70.6  per  cent  of  these  started  at  less  than  $8.  Begin- 
ning age,  therefore,  is  not  a  vital  factor  in  determining 
beginning  wage. 

Within  the  occupations,  also,  the  beginning  age 
differed  very  slightly ;  36.5  per  cent  of  the  stenographers 
as  compared  with  38.2  per  cent  of  the  clerks  began 
office  work  before  they  were  eighteen,  while  70.9  per 
cent  of  the  stenographers  as  compared  with  66.3  per 
cent  of  the  clerks  began  before  they  were  twenty  years 
of  age.  Practically  the  same  proportion  of  the  stenog- 
raphers secured  through  the  schools  (37.4  per  cent) 
began  before  they  were  eighteen,  while  86.6  per  cent 
began  at  less  than  twenty  years  of  age.  Since  the  ages 
are  so  similar,  at  which  these  different  classes  of  office 

'  Twenty-one  reported  beginning  wage.         '  Twenty-eight  reported  beginning  wage. 


WAGES.  147 

workers  began  their  work,  variations  in  the  initial  wages 
paid  to  stenographers  and  to  clerks  cannot  be  ascribed 
to  the  beginning  age.  Rather  should  the  difference  in 
wages  be  explained  by  the  different  requirements  of  the 
work  itself,  where  skill  and  intelligence  can  command 
the  better  wages.  Education,  then,  has  a  deciding 
influence  in  determining  the  girl's  vocation  and  con- 
sequently in  defining  her  wages  through  her  business 
career. 

To  sum  up,  therefore,  office  service  ranks  unusually 
high  in  its  wage  scale  when  compared  with  other  occupa- 
tions for  women.  While  personal  characteristics,  which 
are  more  or  less  intangible,  have  their  influence  on  the 
opportunities  and  advancement  of  women  in  office 
service,  three  factors,  education,  age  and  length  of 
experience  can  be  definitely  measured.  Commercial 
educators  will  be  interested  to  know  that  the  same 
relation  between  wage  and  these  determining  factors  is 
found  among  the  310  girls  studied  in  the  Boston  public 
high  schools,  who  have  been  trained  there  within  the 
last  five  years,  as  among  the  much  larger  number 
studied  from  offices,  when  due  regard  is  given  to  the 
occupations,  education  and  length  of  experience  of  the 
two  groups.  Less  than  one-fifth  (16.5  per  cent)  of  those 
studied  from  the  offices  and  18  per  cent  of  those  from 
the  schools  earned  less  than  $8.  The  stenographers  and 
the  clerks  studied  from  the  offices  and  the  stenographers 
alone  from  the  schools  are  used  as  the  primary  basis 
for  this  wage  study,  since  they  constitute  the  largest 
number  and  most  important  groups  from  these  two 
sources. 

Education  seems  to  be  the  most  important  determin- 
ing factor  in  advancement  in  office  service,  and  the 
relation  between  education  and  wage  is  direct.  High 
wages  characterize  the  occupations  where  the  majority 
is  adequately  trained.  Only  one-third  of  the  clerks 
were  high  school  graduates  or  the  equivalent,  and 
only  one-fourth  earned  $12  and  over,  while  a  similar 
proportion  earned  less  than  $8.     The  group  wage  for 


148  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

clerks  is,  therefore,  S8  and  less  than  $12,  one-half 
coming  within  this  range.  Almost  three-fourths  of  the 
stenographers  had  had  a  high  school  education  or  its 
equivalent,  and  one-half  earned  $12  and  over,  while  only 
one-twentieth  earned  less  than  $8.  While  three-fourths 
of  the  clerks,  therefore,  earned  less  than  $12,  one-half  of 
the  stenographers  earned  $12  and  over.  Similarly,  more 
than  four-fifths  of  the  stenographers  studied  from  the 
schools  were  high  school  graduates  or  the  equivalent, 
but  because  of  their  shorter  working  experience  only 
one-third  earned  $12  and  over.  Only  one-tenth,  how- 
ever, earned  less  than  $8. 

Additional  technical  training,  in  all  cases,  gave  the 
girl  a  further  advantage,  which  was  especially  evident 
when  length  of  experience  was  considered.  The  clerks 
and  stenographers  studied  from  the  offices  had  the  same 
length  of  experience,  when  considered  as  groups,  but  the 
broader  education  of  the  stenographers  enabled  them  to 
reach  a  much  better  wage  within  the  same  length  of  time. 
Only  the  very  well  trained  among  both  clerks  and  stenog- 
raphers reached  a  high  wage  within  a  shorter  length  of 
time  than  was  necessary  for  the  majority.  Education, 
therefore,  not  only  makes  it  possible  for  the  girl  to  enter 
a  skilled  occupation  in  the  beginning  but  also  enables 
her  to  command  a  higher  initial  wage  and  to  reach  a  high 
wage  within  the  minimum  length  of  time. 

About  one-half  of  the  stenographers  as  compared  with 
three-fourths  of  the  clerks,  who  are  less  adequately 
trained,  began  work  at  less  than  $8.  One-half  of  the 
stenographers  (studied  from  offices),  who  were  high  school 
graduates  or  the  equivalent,  began  with  an  initial  wage 
of  S8  or  more  in  contrast  to  one-fourth  of  those  less 
adequately  equipped.  So,  also,  one-half  of  the  young 
stenographers  (studied  from  the  schools),  who  were  high 
school  graduates  or  the  equivalent,  and  only  one-sixth 
of  those  who  were  not,  began  work  with  an  initial  wage 
of  $8  or  more. 

Education,  therefore,  is  of  vital  importance  to  the 
girl  entering  office  service.     Through  thorough  prepara- 


WAGES.  149 

tion,  the  schools  can  fit  girls  to  fill  responsible  and  well- 
paid  positions.  Even  those  who  never  rise  beyond  a 
position  of  moderate  importance  are  still  more  fortunate 
than  the  majority  of  women  in  industrial  and  mercantile 
occupations.  The  demand  from  the  employers  is 
always  for  greater  skill,  accuracy  and  intelligence,  and 
they  are  willing  to  pay  proportionately.  To  fill  such 
demands,  general  education  and  intensive  technical 
training  are  essential  to  the  usual  girl.  Those  without 
the  opportunities  for  obtaining  these  requisites  will  find 
themselves,  except  in  very  unusual  cases,  very  seriously 
handicapped.  They  would  better  be  directed  into  some 
occupation  where  they  would  have  greater  opportunity 
for  success.  The  schools,  however,  are  responsible  for 
the  girl  who  is  promising  and  able  to  spend  the  requisite 
time  to  secure  the  necessary  equipment.  They  must 
convince  her  of  the  necessity  and  see  that  she  receives 
an  adequate  and  closely  correlated  preparation.  Techni- 
cal skill  is  necessary,  but  above  all,  a  well  balanced 
education,  providing  the  requisite  general  intelligence, 
must  lay  the  foundation  for  success  in  office  service. 


150  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


CHAPTER    v.— HOME    LIFE    AND    RESPONSI- 
BILITIES 


Hazel  Manning 


The  formulation  of  a  curriculum  for  the  various  high 
schools  throughout  Boston  is  peculiarly  difficult  because 
of  the  widely  different  social  and  economic  status  of 
the  various  neighborhoods  as  well  as  the  extensive 
territory  from  which  some  of  the  schools  draw  their 
pupils.  The  home  background  of  the  girl  provides  her 
with  a  foundation  upon  which  the  school  must  build. 
Each  school,  therefore,  must  have  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  its  own  neighborhood  in  order  to  plan  its 
curriculum  so  as  to  supplement  most  effectively  the 
background  provided  by  the  family  life.  For  instance, 
a  high  school  offering  commercial  courses  which  draws 
large  numbers  of  pupils  of  foreign-born  parentage  must 
not  only  give  much  emphasis  to  the  fundamental  and 
almost  elementary  requisites  of  business  intercourse, 
i.  e.,  English,  grammar  and  spelling,  but  also  must 
provide  these  pupils  with  a  knowledge  of  our  social  and 
business  customs.  On  the  other  hand,  the  school  which 
draws  from  a  neighborhood  predominantly  native-born, 
of  comparatively  comfortable  circumstances  and  repre- 
senting some  culture  and  education,  may  give  much 
less  time  and  emphasis  to  the  comparatively  elemen- 
tary and  general  training.  Each  high  school  draws 
pupils  of  both  types,  but  one  or  the  other  may  predom- 
inate in  a  particular  school.  A  curriculum  of  sufficient 
elasticity  to  meet  the  needs  of  all  pupils  is,  therefore, 
the  problem  before  the  school. 

The  five  high  schools  taken  for  intensive  study  illus- 
trate the  varying  social  factors  which  should  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  the  formulation  of  a  curriculum 


HOME   LIFE   AND   RESPONSIBILITIES.  151 

for  vocational  training.  The  Girls'  High  School,  with 
1,887^  pupils,  is  located  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  but  draws 
from  a  very  wide  area.  A  few  pupils  come  from  the 
North  End  and  a  somewhat  larger  proportion  from  the 
West  End,  both  of  which  have  no  high  school  of  their 
own,  but  the  majority  is  drawn  from  the  South  End  and 
the  neighboring  suburban  districts.  East  Boston  High 
School  with  322  girls  and  Charlestown  with  270  girls 
are  both  co-educational,  drawing  from  small,  congested 
but  fairly  homogeneous  neighborhoods.  Roxbury  High 
School  with  774  girls  and  Dorchester  High  School  (co- 
educational) with  1,065  girls  draw  from  extensive  subur- 
ban districts  of  widely  varying  social  and  economic 
conditions.  An  intensive  study  of  each  neighborhood, 
therefore,  yields  valuable  suggestions  to  the  educator. 

The  North  End  is  represented,  but  in  a  very  small 
minority,  in  the  Girls'  High  School.  This  portion  of  the 
city  was  the  first  to  be  settled  by  the  newcomers  to 
America  and  it  has  continued  to  be  the  first  home  of  each 
race  making  up  the  various  waves  of  immigration  through 
the  last  century.  As  soon  as  the  economic  condition  of 
the  family  will  permit,  a  move  is  made  to  the  West  End. 
In  this  section  of  the  city,  wider  streets  and  more  modern 
brick  tenements  are  noted,  but  there  is  a  drawback  too, 
for  rents  are  very  high,  and  the  next  move  is  made  to 
Roxbury  or  Dorchester,  where  more  room  and  suburban 
conditions  can  be  had.  The  older  members  of  the  family 
have  settled  among  friends  in  the  North  and  West  Ends, 
and  it  is  often  with  regret  that  they  yield  to  the  desires  of 
the  younger  and  more  progressive  members  of  the  family 
to  move  into  a  now  neighborhood. 

The  South  End  together  with  the  West  End  supplies 
a  large  number  of  the  pupils  of  the  Girls'  High  School. 
The  two  districts  have  a  population  of  which  but  19 
per  cent  are  native  white  of  native-born  parents,  and 
only  two-fifths  (41.3  per  cent)  native-born,  though  56.3 
per  cent  are  English  speaking.  In  the  foreign  element 
there  is   a   larger   proportion   of   people  whose   native 

In  1912-1913.     See  Table  4,  page  13. 


152  WOMEN   IX  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

language  is  not  English  than  any  of  the  other  dis- 
tricts studied,  13,000  of  the  27,000  ^  foreign-born  being 
Russians  and  Hebrews. 

The  West  End  is  a  crowded  district  of  tenements  and 
apartment  houses,  which  provide  the  second  stage  or 
stopping  place  in  the  migration  of  many  of  the  European 
settlers  from  the  crowded  neighborhood  in  which  they 
made  their  first  home.  An  old-world  atmosphere  still 
prevails  in  the  crowded,  narrow  streets,  but  the  thriving 
and  active  settlement  in  their  midst  is  making  valuable 
contributions  in  its  social  and  educational  activities. 
Increasing  prosperity  and  the  new-world  ideals  make 
possible  a  high  school  education  for  some  of  the 
daughters  who  must  make  the  long  trip  to  the  Girls' 
High  School  in  the  South  End  for  the  schooling  which 
will  equip  them  for  a  vocation. 

The  South  End,  with  its  bright  spots  of  small  green 
parks,  vividly  recalls  similar  sections  in  English  cities. 
It  was  once  the  home  of  the  well-to-do  people  of  English 
ancestry,  who  have  since  moved  from  the  crowded 
section  to  suburbs,  but  now  is  essentially  the  lodging- 
house  district  of  the  city,  all  of  the  homes  that  were 
visited  renting  rooms  to  three  or  four  lodgers. 

East  Boston,  which  has  been  transformed  from  a 
small  seafaring  village  in  early  days  to  a  congested 
section  with  blocks  of  wooden  tenement  houses,  which 
provide  a  living  place  for  many  of  Boston's  workers, 
now  has  a  population  of  which  but  16.5  per  cent  are 
native  white  of  native-born  parentage,  though  three- 
fifths  (60.7  per  cent)  are  native-born.  On  the  other 
hand,  79.7  per  cent  of  the  total  population  are  of  English 
speaking  parentage.  The  predominant  foreign  group  is 
Canadian,  which  constitutes  over  one-fourth  (28.7  per 
cent)  of  the  foreign-born  population.  Like  the  North 
End  it  is  a  place  of  transition.  This  small  island,  which 
was  annexed  to  Boston  in  1636,  has  grown  rapidly,  until 
in  1910  it  has  a  population  of  over  58,000.    The  residents, 

'United  States  Census,  1910,  Population,  Volume  II,  page  890.     Foreign-born,  27,627, 
Rtusians,  13,540. 


HOME   LIFE   AND   RESPONSIBILITIES. 


153 


among  whom  Canadians,  Italians,  Irish  and  Russians 
predominate,^  are  carried  back  and  forth  from  the  city 
by  means  of  a  ferry  and  a  tube  under  the  bay,  but  the 
personnel  is  constantly  changing,  as  the  families  are 
moving  every  day  to  less  congested  suburbs. 

Charlestown  is  almost  a  unit  in  itself.     About  Monu- 
ment square,  the  old  three-story  brick  houses  rise  high 

Table  35. —  Showing  Nativity  of  the  Population  of  Five  School  Neighborhoods.^ 


Pboportion  op 

Specified  Nativity  ih 

Each  Neighborhood.' 

! 

NAXrVITT. 

EAST    BOSTON. 

CHARLESTOWN. 

west 
south 

AND 

ENDS. 

ROXBURY. 

dobchesteb. 

ToUl. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
cent. 

Native-bom. . . . 

35,532 

60.7 

28.893 

69.8 

29,097 

51.3 

60,147 

67.9 

68.424 

73.4 

222.093 

Native  white,  native 
parents. 

Foreign     or     mixed 
parents.' 

9.654 

25.878 

16.5 

44.2 

9.972 
18,921 

24.1 
45.7 

10.767 
18,330 

19.0 
32.3 

20,435 
39,712 

23.1 
44.8 

31.798 
36.626 

34.2 
39.2 

82,626 
139.467 

Foreign-born  * 

22,956 

39.3 

12,551 

30.2 

27,627 

48.7 

28,504 

32.1 

25,045 

26.6 

116.683 

English  speaking 

Non-English   speak- 
ing- 

11,111 
11.845 

19.0 
20.3 

10,824 
1,727 

26.1 
4.1 

8,542 
19,085 

15.0 
33.7 

20,682 
7,822 

23. 3i 

8. si 

17.004 
8,041 

18.2 
8.4 

68.163 
48.520 

Total 

58,488 

100.0 

41,444 

100.0 

56,724 

100.0 

88,651 

100. d 

93,469 

100.0 

338,776 

1  United  States  Census,  1910,  Population,  Volume  II,  page  890. 

'School    Neighborhoods  —  East   Boston,    Wards  1  and  2;    Charlestown,   Wards  3,  4,  and   5;   West   End, 
Ward  8;  South  End,  Ward  12;  Roxbury,  Wards  17  and  19;  Dorchester,  Wards  20  and  24. 
•  Including  negroes.  ♦  Including  Chinese  and  Japanese. 


above  the  crowded,  congested  city  behind  them.  They 
are  the  last  remnant  of  the  aristocratic  section  that  once 
claimed  a  fair  portion  of  the  little  space  only  a  mile 
square  called  Charlestown.  Less  than  one-fourth  of  the 
population  of  Charlestown  is  native  white  and  of  native 
parentage,  which  is  also  true  of  Roxbury,  but  95.9  per 
cent  of  the  population  of  Charlestown  and  91.2  per  cent 
of  Roxbury  are  of  Enghsh  speaking  parents.  ]More 
than  four-fifths  of  the  foreign-born  in  Charlestown  and 

>  Canadians.  6.599;  Italians.  4,565;  Irish,  3,948;  Russians.  3,415. 


154  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

almost  three-fourths  in  Roxbury  are  of  British-American 
or  British  parentage,  for  many  Canadians  and  British- 
Americans  from  the  provinces  have  settled  in  these 
sections. 

Roxbury  and  Dorchester  were  at  first  settled  princi- 
pally by  the  well-to-do  people  who  were  forced  out  of 
the  South  End  by  the  advance  of  the  business  district. 
Into  these  suburbs  is  now  coming  the  overflow  from  the 
North  and  West  Ends.  The  original  settlers  of  Roxbury 
and  Dorchester  are  moving  on  to  Brookline  and  even 
farther  away  in  order  to  avoid  the  rush  of  the  city. 
The  Roxbury  end  of  Blue  Hill  avenue  has  sprung  into 
life  in  the  last  ten  years  and  is  now  lined  for  several  miles 
with  one-story  or  two-story  business  buildings.  Rox- 
bury Crossing  divides  its  girls  of  the  school  age  between 
the  Girls'  and  Roxbury  High  Schools.  This  district 
about  Roxbury  Crossing  is  becoming  very  crowded, 
because  it  is  easily  reached  by  the  street  car  and  is 
accessible  to  several  large  industries.  Roxbury  has  all 
the  characteristics  of  a  neighborhood  in  transition. 
From  an  old  dilapidated  house  or  a  crowded  tenement, 
one  can,  by  simply  turning  a  corner,  step  into  a  home 
furnished  in  mahogany  and  oriental  rugs. 

In  Dorchester,  where  almost  three-fourths  are  native- 
born,  only  one-third  (34.2  per  cent)  are  native  white  of 
native  parentage,  though  91.6  per  cent  come  of  English 
speaking  parents.  More  than  two-thirds  of  the  foreign- 
born  are  from  British-American  or  British  countries. 
Dorchester  is  rapidly  being  built  up  with  three-story 
apartment  houses  occupied  by  prosperous  trades-people, 
and  represents  the  most  comfortable  and  well-to-do 
section  studied.  Here,  as  in  Roxbury,  many  of  the 
old  and  beautiful  homes  were  visited,  for  office  ser- 
vice draws  from  every  type  of  home  and  grade  of 
society.  However,  the  majority  of  girls  that  were 
visited  lived  in  two-family  houses.  They  were  homes  of 
substantial  business  people,  who  lived  simply  but  well. 
The  mother  or  some  member  of  the  family  usually 
answered   the  bell   and   greeted   the   investigator   with 


HOME   LIFE   AND   RESPONSIBILITIES.  155 

intelligent  and  cordial  interest.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  such  a  home  influence  may  give  a  girl  a  decided 
advantage  over  her  less  fortunate  neighbor.  The  father 
with  his  business  experience  provides  an  atmosphere 
which  will  help  the  girl  in  an  understanding  of  business 
intercourse.  The  cultured  mother  unconsciously  pro- 
vides a  background  in  social  training  that  will  be  a 
valuable  asset  to  the  girl  in  her  relationship  with  others 
in  the  office. 

Although  in  all  these  neighborhoods  there  is  a  foreign 
element  representing  large  numbers,  if  not  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  total  group,  adjustment  and  adaptation 
to  their  particular  needs  is  probably  much  more  a  prob- 
lem of  the  grammar  than  of  the  high  school.  For  the 
grammar  school  has  the  great  opportunity  and  respon- 
sibility of  meeting  the  fundamental  needs  of  the  foreign- 
born  population.  The  high  school  curriculum  can  only 
build  on  the  foundation  provided  for  it. 

The  Commission  on  Immigration  found  in  1908  that 
51.5  per  cent  of  the  girls  in  the  Boston  high  schools  were 
of  American  parentage  and  65.4  per  cent  of  English 
speaking  parents.^  The  relative  proportion  of  English 
and  of  non-English  speaking  peoples  presents  a  problem 
which  must  be  considered  by  each  individual  high 
school,  for  in  the  East  Boston  High  School,  for  instance, 
but  36.6  per  cent  of  the  girls  were  of  native-born 
parentage.^  There  is  a  larger  foreign  element  in  the 
evening  than  in  the  day  schools,  though  they  draw 
primarily  from  the  same  five  neighborhoods.  More 
than  one-fourth  (28.2  per  cent)  of  861  evening  school 
pupils  studied  were  of  American-born  parents,  while 
more  than  two-thirds  (69.8  per  cent)  had  foreign-born 
parents.  A  slightly  larger  proportion  (34.7  per  cent) 
of  the  girls  working  in  offices  during  the  day,  however, 
came  from  Amorican-l)orn  parents. 

To    summarize,    therefore,    the    Girls'    High    School 

'  United  States  Immigration  Commission,  The  Children  of  Immigranti  in  School, 
Volume  n,  pages  190-193. 

'  From  a  transcript  of  the  report  of  the  East  Boston  High  School  to  the  Commission  on 
Immigration. 


156  WOMEN   IX   OFFICE   SERVICE. 

draws  from  a  neighborhood  of  which  less  than  one- 
half  are  American-born,  though  English  is  the  native 
language  of  more  than  one-half.  The  East  Boston 
High  School  draws  from  a  section  in  which  less 
than  two-thirds  are  native-born,  but  almost  four-fifths 
are  English  speaking  people.  Roxbury  and  Charles- 
town,  two-thirds  of  whose  inhabitants  are  native-born, 
have  a  population  of  which  more  than  nine-tenths  are 
of  English  speaking  parentage.  Dorchester  has  the 
largest  percentage,  three-fourths,  of  native-born  inhab- 
itants. The  proportion  of  English  speaking  people 
(91.6  per  cent),  however,  is  not  so  great  as  in  Charles- 
town  (95.9  per  cent),  where  the  great  proportion  of 
foreign-born  come  from  English  speaking  countries. 
The  racial  characteristics  of  the  neighborhood,  and 
especially  of  those  families  from  which  the  schools  draw 
their  pupils,  determine  in  a  large  degree  the  foundation 
upon  which  the  school  must  build.  Visits  to  the  home 
also  yield  valuable  suggestions  and  illustrate  some  of 
the  tremendous  problems  confronting  the  schools  which 
attempt  vocational  education,  for  the  success  of  such 
education  is  determined  by  the  success  of  the  people 
trained.  Employers  and  particularly  business  men 
demand  not  only  women  of  technical  ability  but  of  neat, 
attractive  appearance  and  pleasing  personality.  Such 
a  survey  of  the  homes  from  which  many  of  these  girls 
come  shows  the  varied  obhgations  which  the  schools 
must  assume.  While  these  girls  "pick  up"  from  obser- 
vation much  knowledge  of  the  necessity  of  neatness, 
proper  dress  and  social  grace,  which  are  requisite  for  suc- 
cess, the  school  must  ultimately  meet  this  responsibility 
in  a  systematic  way  if  the  best  results  of  its  training  are 
to  be  realized.  The  schools  are  taking  an  increasing 
interest  in  the  home  and  is  exerting  more  effort  to  find 
out  conditions  and  difficulties  and  even  to  aid  the 
mother  in  the  solution  of  some  of  her  problems,  as  seen 
in  the  mothers'  meetings,  home  visitors'  and  parent- 
teachers'  associations. 

The  mother,  whose  influence  is  so  important  in  the 


HOME   LIFE  AND   RESPONSIBILITIES.  157 

family  life,  was  usually  interested  and  in  close  touch 
with  her  daughter  and  her  work,  but  occasionally 
one  was  found  who  did  not  know  where  her  daughter 
worked  nor  how  she  could  be  reached.  The  pressure 
on  the  mother  of  hard  work  and  a  large  family  or  the 
unfortunate  tendency,  sometimes  observed,  of  the  young 
girl  to  break  away  from  old-world  ideals  often  explains 
the  mother's  ignorance  of  her  daughter's  activities  and 
surroundings.  The  dangers  and  possibilities  of  such  a 
situation  are  a  matter  for  serious  consideration.  As  a 
rule,  however,  the  mother  was  very  keenly  interested  in 
the  work  of  her  young  daughter  and  expressed  an  unwil- 
lingness that  she  should  work  alone  in  an  office,  usually 
wishing  her  to  get  a  position  in  a  large  establishment 
where  she  might  have  companions. 

Wage-earning  mothers  were  found  in  but  ten  of  the 
310  families  visited  and  included  rooming-house  keepers, 
saleswomen,  cleaning  women,  and  small  storekeepers. 
The  wage-earning  mother  was  usually  anxious  for  her 
children  to  have  all  the  education  they  could  get.  One 
widowed  mother  said  that  her  daughter  was  her  only 
child  and  that  for  eight  years  she  had  kept  lodgers, 
making  only  enough  profit  to  send  her  little  girl  to 
school,  but  she  had  placed  her  child  in  a  fairly  good 
position  at  SIO  a  week  and  could  rest  content  with 
the  knowledge  that  she  had  done  all  within  her  power 
to  educate  her  daughter.  In  contrast,  one  well-to-do 
woman  in  a  very  comfortable  home  insisted  that  two 
years  in  high  school  ought  to  provide  enough  education 
whereby  any  girl  might  earn  her  living. 

The  largest  proportion  of  the  women  in  office  service, 
as  well  as  in  all  other  occupations,  form  a  part  of  a 
family  group. ^  More  than  four-fifths  (82.2  per  cent)  of 
the  760  women  studied  in  offices  and  who  reported  on 
living  conditions  were  living  at  home  and  almost  two- 
thirds  (66.0  per  cent)  of  these  were  over  twenty-one 
years  of  age.  Almost  one-half  (43.3  per  cent)  of  the 
624  women  living  at  home  were  earning  less  than  SIO 

'  United  States  Census,  1900,  Statistics  of  Women  at  Work,  page  108. 


158 


WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 


a  week  and  about  one-fifth  (22  per  cent)  were  getting 
less  than  S8.  Practically  all  (634  or  96.2  per  cent)  of 
the  659  girls  studied  from  the  schools  were  living  at  home 
and  almost  three-fourths  (70.2  per  cent)  were  under 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  showing  that  this  group  was 


Table  36.—  Showing  Wage  by  Age  by  Living  Condition  of  659  Girls 
Secured  from  the  Schools. 


Number  Earning  Specified  Wage 
Living  Condition  and  Age. 

BY 

Living  Conditions. 

d 

i 
h4 

•o  q 

M 

-c5  a 
a  o! 

-a  a 

o 
a 

»» 

a 

t3 

Total. 

2 

71 

138 

163 

88 

126 

46 

634 

20 
38 
13 

3 

57 

67 

9 

2 

2 
39 
94 
20 

7 

1 

2 

17 

17 

6 

4 

27 

2 

11 

40 

35 

2 

1 
22 
67 
36 

165 

253 

137 

51 

1 

1 

7 

5 

5 

6 

1 

25 

1 
4 
2 

1 

2 

1 

1 
1 
3 

6 

5 

1 
5 

4 

13 

2 

72 

145 

168 

93 

132 

47 

659  > 

>310  visited  in  the  homes;  349  studied  in  the  evening  schools.  Compare  with  women 
in  stores  and  factories.  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  Women  and  Child  Wage-earners, 
Vol.  V,  page  23. 

much  younger  than  is  characteristic  of  the  occupation. 
More  than  one-half  (59  per  cent)  of  these  young  people 
were  getting  less  than  $10  a  week,  while  33.3  per  cent 
were  getting  less  than  $8.^ 

Considering  the  whole  group  of  1,419  young  women 

»  See  Table  30.     Based  on  0.34  girls  living  at  home. 


HOME   LIFE   AND   RESPONSIBILITIES. 


159 


from  whom  living  conditions  were  learned,  over  four- 
fifths  (88.6  per  cent)  were  living  at  home.  Slightly- 
more  than  one-half  (51.2  per  cent)  of  this  number  were 
getting  less  than  $10  a  week  and  more  than  one-fourth 
(27.6  per  cent)  less  than  $8.  A  somewhat  larger  propor- 
tion of  the  women  in  office  service  in  Boston  than  for 
the  United  States  as  a  whole  formed  a  part  of  a  family 
group.     (See  Table  37.) 

The  small  proportion,  less  than  one-eighth  (11.4  per 
cent),  which  lived  away  from  home  consisted  mainly  of 
women  of  more  maturity  who  were  earning  an  adequate 


Table  37. —  Showing  Living  Conditions  of  Women  in  Office  Service 
in  the  United  States. ' 


Living  Conditions. 

Feb  Cent  in  each  Occupation 
BY  Specified  Family  Connections. 

Clerks. 

Stenographers 
and  Typewriters. 

82.1 

79  3 

Heads  of  Family 

4.8 
42.8 
21.0 
13.5 

2  3 

With  Father 

43.9 

With  Mother 

20  9 

12  2 

17.9 

20  7 

>  United  States  Census,  1900,  Statistics  of  Women  at  Work,  pages  101-108. 


wage.  More  than  one-half  (50.3  per  cent)  were  twenty- 
five  years  of  age  and  over  and  seven-tenths  (70.8  per  cent) 
earned  $10  or  more.  The  greater  maturity  and  larger 
proportion  of  better  paid  women  among  those  who  are 
boarding  may  be  explained  by  many  factors,  several  of 
which  may  be  mentioned.  The  woman  of  greater 
maturity  and  better  wage  is  in  a  position  to  live  inde- 
pendently. If  she  chooses,  she  may  live  near  her  work 
or  within  reach  of  recreational  opportunities,  such  as 
the  opera  or  theater.  Greater  maturity  also  carries 
with  it  greater  probability  that  the  family  circle  has 
broken  up.     Since  greater  maturity  and  longer  experi- 


160 


WOMEN   IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


ence  signify  greater  value  to  her  employer,  so  the  wage 
scale  of  this  group  is  correspondingly  somewhat  higher 
than  that  of  the  younger  group. 

Since  practically  all  of  the  310  girls  secured  from 
the  schools  were  young  and  were  members  of  a  family 
group,  the  majority,  almost  three-fourths  (76.8  per  cent), 
had  a  father  at  the  head  of  the  family,  a  much  larger 
proportion  than  appears  in  the  Census.  A  small  pro- 
portion (4  per  cent)  had  no  mothers  and  the  home  had 

Table  38. —  Showing  Living  Conditions  of  310  Girls  in  Office 
Service. 1 


LrviNQ  Conditions. 

Women  Living  Under  Specified  Conditions. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

302 

97.4 

292 

96.7 

With  Father 

232 
48 
12 

76.8 

Without  Father 

15.9 

Without  Mother     

4.0 

10 

3.3 

7 
3 

2.3 

1.0 

Boarding 

8 

2.6 

310 

100.0 

'  Secured  from  the  schools. 

to  be  looked  after  by  an  older  sister  or  relative.  A 
still  smaller  proportion  (3.3  per  cent)  were  either  Uving 
with  relatives  or  supporting  others,  while  only  2.6  per 
cent  had  no  homes  and  were  boarding. 

The  entering  age  of  the  workers  of  an  occupation  is 
an  index  to  the  amount  of  skill  and  intelligence  required. 
Office  work  varies  widely  in  its  different  aspects,  some 
positions  demanding  little  or  no  general  education  and 
some  demanding  as  much  as  possible  with  technical 
training  in  addition,  so  that  a  wide  range  is  discovered  in 


HOME   LIFE  AND   RESPONSIBILITIES. 


161 


the  entrance  age  of  the  office  workers.  Many  of  the 
purely  clerical  positions  require  little  general  or  technical 
education.  It  is,  primarily,  those  girls  who  had  gone 
into  these  positions  at  an  early  age  who  have  come 
back  to  the  evening  commercial  high  schools  for  more 


Table    39. —  Showing   Age    at    Beginning    Work    by   Occupation 
of  the  Fathers. 


Number  Beginning  Work  at  Specified  Age 

BY    OCCUP.'^TION 

OF  Father. 

DAT    SCHOOL. 

EVENING 

SCHOOL. 

Kind  of  Occupation. 

1 

T) 

•o 

•a 

-a 

TJ 

CD 

S2 

^^ 

a 

03 

o 

§2 

§g 

□ 

03 

'a 

o 

II 

1^ 

M 

'    "3 
1 

2^ 

2  . 

•a 
§ 

;3 

Manual 

142 

21 

40 

66 

15 

209 

97 

69 

24 

12 

7 

Business  or  professional, 

102 

7 

32 

51 

12 

99 

34 

34 

17 

7 

7 

66 

8 

24 

23 

11 

41 

22 

7 

8 

4 

Total 

310 

36 

96 

140 

38 

349 

153 

110 

49 

23      14 

Per 

Cent  of  T 

HOSE 

Beginning  1 

rVoRK 

AT  Specified  Age  bt 

Oc 

CUPATION    OF 

Fath 

ER. 

DAY    SCHOOL. 

EV 

ening 

SCHOOL. 

Kind  of  Occupation. 

-a 

■a     . 

•o 

•B 

•v 

■V 

CD 

^2 

oJcs) 

a 

03 

«2 

§g 

c 
a 

"H 

o 

Z  2 

^1 

CO 

55  ^ 

1^ 

o 

"a 
o 

a  "^ 

oc 

B 

100.0 
100.0 

14.8 
6.9 

28.2 
31.3 

46.4 
50.0 

10.6 
11.8 

100.0 
100.0 

46.5 
34.3 

33.0 
34.4 

11.5 
17.1 

5.7 
7.1 

3.3 
7.1 

Business  or  professional, 

Unclassified  • 

100.0 

12.1 

36.4 

34.8 

16.7 

100.0 

53.7 

17.0 

19.5 

9.8 

Total 

100.0 

11.6 

30.9 

45.2 

12.3 

100.0 

43.8 

31.5 

14.1 

6.6 

4.0 

'  47  dead,  15  retired,  4  unclassified. 

general  education  and  technique.  More  than  two- 
fifths  (43.8  per  cent)  of  the  girls  in  office  service,  who 
were  attending  evening  school,  went  to  work  before 
they  were  sixteen  and  more  than  three-fourths  before 
they  were  eighteen  years  of  age.  Naturallj'  a  com- 
paratively small  proportion  (11.6  per  cent)  of  the  310 


162  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE   SERVICE. 

girls  visited  in  their  homes  had  gone  to  work  under 
sixteen  and  less  than  one-half  before  they  were  eighteen 
years  of  age  because  two-thirds  were  high  school 
graduates. 

The  characteristic  restlessness  of  the  girl  of  fourteen 
to  sixteen  years  of  age,  as  well  as  economic  pressure, 
explain  the  early  age  at  which  some  of  the  young  women 
have  gone  to  work  in  the  lower  grades  of  office  service. 
The  girl  is  at  an  age  when  lessons  seem  hard  and  she 
may  be  easily  discouraged  with  her  school  work.  The 
office  or  store  looks  inviting  and,  if  she  has  no  home 
restraint  or  encouragement  to  continue  with  her 
school  work,  she  is  likely  to  leave  it  for  the  alluring  pay 
envelope.  The  girl  in  the  vocational  school  is  especially 
tempted  because  she  has  some  of  the  fundamental 
equipment,  even  though  inadequate,  which  enables  her 
to  get  "a  job,"  and  neither  she  nor  her  family  may 
realize  the  importance  of  completing  the  course  estab- 
lished by  the  school.  One  of  the  purposes  of  this  study 
is  to  show  and  to  impress  upon  the  teacher,  child  and 
parent  the  advantages  of  securing  the  most  adequate 
preliminary  education  possible.  For  the  degree  of  her 
educational  equipment  determines  to  a  very  marked 
extent  her  financial  compensation,  the  conditions  of 
work  and  the  opportunities  for  advancement. 

Economic  pressure  may  be  indicated  by  two  factors, 
which,  no  doubt,  explains  the  early  age  at  which  some 
of  the  girls  go  to  work.  The  occupation  of  the  father 
provides  an  index  to  the  family  income,  and  his  nation- 
ality, which  may  be  an  asset  or  a  handicap  to  his  earn- 
ing capacity,  also  determines  to  some  extent  the  educa- 
tional and  economic  viewpoint  of  the  family.  The 
evening  school  provides  the  best  opportunity  for  a 
study  of  the  relation  between  age  at  beginning  work 
and  economic  pressure  because  all  types  are  represented. 
One  hundred  and  fifty-three  of  the  349  girls  engaged 
in  office  service  during  the  day  had  gone  to  work  before 
the  age  of  sixteen  years.  Almost  two-thirds  of  these 
(63.4  per  cent)  came  from  homes  where  the  fathers  were 


HOME  LIFE   AND   RESPONSIBILITIES. 


163 


engaged  in  manual  work.  The  fathers  of  only  a  little 
more  than  one-fifth  of  the  girls  going  to  work  before 
sixteen  years  of  age  were  engaged  in  some  business  or 
profession.     From  the  standpoint  of  the  parents'  occu- 


Table  40. —  Showing  Occupation   of   Fathers  of   Qirls   from   Day 
and  Evening  High  School  Records. 


Pupils  Whose  Fathers  were 
IN  Specified  Occupations. 

' 
1 

1 

Classification. 

DAT    SCHOOL 
RECORDS. 

EVENING 
SCHOOL 
RECORDS. 

Total. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

1  Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

142 

100.0 

1 

209 

100.0 

351 

100  0 

20 
10 
6 
55 
40 
11 

14.1 

7.0 

4.2 

38.8 

28.2 

7.7 

44 
12 
10 
82 
48 
13 

21.1 

5.7 

4.8 

39.2 

23.0 

6.2 

64 
22 
16 
137 
88 
24 

18  5 

6  2 

Agricultural  Workera 

4  5 

Skilled  Trade  Workers 

39  0 

25  0 

Public  Service  and  Railroad  Employees. . 

6.8 

102 

100  0  '       fto 

100.0 

201 

100  0 

Government  Service  Employees 

Mercantile  Workers  (employees) 

Clerical  Workers 

17 
55 

6 
15 

9 

16.7 

53.9 

5.9 

14.7  ' 

19 
57 

8 
s 

19.2 

56.6 

8.1 

8.1 

8.0 

36 
112 
14 
23 
16 

17.9 

55.7 

7  0 

11  4 

; 

8.8  ;            7 

8  0 

Miscellaneous 

66 

100.0 

41 

100.0 

107 

100.0 

47 
15 
4 

71.2 

22.7 

6.1 

41 

100.0 

88 
15 
4 

82  2 

14  2 

3  6 

310 

100.0 

349 

100.0 

659 

100  0 

'  Real  Estate  and  Insurance  Agents,  Bankers  and  Brokers,  Undertakers,  etc. 

pation  almost  one-half  (4G.5  per  cent)  of  those  girls 
whose  fathers  were  in  manual  work  went  to  work  before 
they  were  sixteen  as  compared  with  34.3  per  cent  whose 
fathers  were  engaged  in  some  business  or  professional 


164  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

occupation.  More  than  three-fourths  (79.5  per  cent) 
of  the  girls  whose  fathers  were  in  manual  work  as 
compared  with  more  than  two-thirds  (68.7  per  cent) 
of  those  in  business  and  professional  occupations  went 
to  work  before  they  were  eighteen  years  old.  The 
home  where  the  father  is  dead  or  where  the  father  does 
not  work  usually  must  send  out  the  girl  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble. More  than  one-half  (53.7  per  cent)  of  those  girls 
from  such  homes  went  to  work  before  they  were  sixteen. 
Though  almost  three-fifths  of  the  girls  came  from  homes 
where  the  fathers  were  engaged  in  manual  work,  the 
majority  of  these  fathers,  two-thirds,  were  either 
skilled  trade  workers  or  skilled  mechanics.  Men  who 
do  this  comparatively  well-paid  work  are  much  better 
able  to  send  their  daughters  through  high  school  than 
are  the  unskilled  workers,  who  must  depend  on  casual 
or  ^'job"  work.  A  larger  proportion  of  the  girls  secured 
from  the  day  schools  (67  per  cent),  therefore,  than 
from  the  evening  school  (62.2  per  cent)  had  fathers  who 
were  engaged  in  skilled  manual  work  and  so  were  able 
to  secure  more  adequate  schooling.  Only  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  girls  secured  from  either  source  came 
from  homes  where  the  heads  of  the  family  were  engaged 
in  unskilled  work  or  personal  service,  for  they  can 
seldom  allow  their  daughters  the  luxury  of  a  secondary 
education. 

About  two-thirds  of  the  fathers  in  business  or  pro- 
fessional work  were  in  the  competitive  side  of  it,  either 
as  employees  or  business  men.  This  contact  with  the 
business  world  through  her  father  ought  to  be  a  great 
help  to  the  girl  who  goes  into  office  service,  by  giving 
her  an  idea  of  what  will  be  expected  of  her,  something  of 
the  point  of  view  and  some  appreciation  of  its  standards 
and  demands.  The  girls  from  homes  which  have  little 
or  no  contact  with  the  business  office  will,  therefore, 
need  more  intensive  training  in  the  school  which  must 
provide  her  with  those  requisites  which  the  home  is 
not  in  a  position  to  give. 

The  age  at  which  the  girl  goes  to  work  may  reflect 


HOME   LIFE   AND   RESPONSIBILITIES. 


165 


also  the  nationality  of  her  parents,  either  because  this 
determines  to  some  degree  the  father's  ability  to  success- 
fully compete  in  the  business  or  industrial  world,  and 
hence  the  economic  pressure  in  the  home,  or  because  it 
reflects  the  educational  ideals  of  the  family  and  its 
attitude  toward  the  girl  as  a  potential  wage-earner. 


Table  41. —  Showing  Relation  of  the  Father's  Nationality  to  the  Age 
of  the  Girl  at  Beginning  Work.^ 


Pupils  op  Specified  Parentage  bt  Age 
Beginning  Work. 

Total. 

Age  at  Beginning 
Work. 

NATIVE- 
BORN. 

foreign-born. 

UNCLASSI- 
FIED. 

1 

a 

<u 
O 

CM 

ENGLISH 
SPEAKING. 

NON- 
ENGLISH 
SPEAKING. 

a 
o 
O 

a 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

O 

u 

Under  16  yeara 

16  yeara  and  uuder  18, 
18  years  and  under  20, 

47 
38 
19 
11 
6 

38.8 

31.4 

15.7 

9.1 

5.0 

59 
46 
19 
11 
3 

42.8 

33.3 

13.8 

7.9 

2.2 

43 
25 
11 

1 
5 

50.6 

29.4 

12.8 

1.2 

6.0 

4 
1 

80.0 
20.0 

153 
110 
49 
23 
14 

43.8 
31.5 
14.1 

20  years  and  over .... 

6.6 

Unclaasified 

4.0 

Total 

121 

100.0 

138 

100.0 

85 

100.0 

5 

100.0 

349 

100.0 

'  Based  on  the  oflSce  workers  attending  evening  school. 

Whatever  may  be  the  determining  cause,  only  38.8  per 
cent  of  the  girls  of  native-born  parents  went  to  work 
before  they  were  sixteen  years  of  age.  More  than  two- 
fifths  (42.8  per  cent)  of  those  of  foreign-born,  but  of 
English  speaking  parentage,  and  more  than  one-half 
(50.6  per  cent)  of  those  of  non-English  speaking  par- 
entage went  to  work  before  the  age  of  sixteen. 

The  great  majority  (93  per  cent)  of  women  in  office 
service  are  single,  as  indicated  by  the  1905  Census,* 
and  an  even  larger  proportion  (98.5  per  cent)  of  the 
girls  studied  from  the  schools,  no  doubt  due  to  the  fact 
that  this  group  is  younger.     Few  women  in  office  service 

Census  of  Massachusetts,  1905,  OccupcUiona,  pages  141-145. 


166 


WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


are  married,  though  former  stenographers  and  typists, 
after  marriage,  frequently  secure  temporary  work  through 
the  typewriter  agencies.  The  placement  agent  to  whom 
they  are  personally  known  occasionally  notifies  such 
women  of  a  temporary  position  which  they  are  glad  to 
take  for  a  short  time. 

The  economic  status  and  nationality  of  the  family 
not  only  influence  the  age  at  which  the  girl  goes  to  work 
but  also  determine  her  share  in  and  responsibility  for  the 
family  support.  Although  the  girl  is  a  member  of  the 
family  group,  she  usually  has  quite  definite  economic 


Table  42. —  Showing  Marital  Condition  of  Women  in  Office  Service 

in  Boston. 1 


Number  in  Each  Occcpation  by 
Specified  Marital  Condition. 

Total. 

Marital  Condition. 

Bookkeepers. 

Clerks. 

Stenographers 
and  Type- 
writers. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

205 

4,086 

158 

117 

2,579 

76 

102 

3,503 

58 

424 

10,168 

292 

3.9 

93  4 

Widowed  and  Divorced 

2.7 

Total 

4,449 

2,772 

3,663 

10,884 

100  0 

'  Census  of  Massachusetts,  1905,  Occupations,  pages  141-145. 


responsibilities.  The  younger  girl  is  very  likely  to  turn 
in  her  pay  envelope  unopened,  allowing  her  mother  to 
buy  her  clothes  and  use  the  money  according  to  her  good 
judgment.  More  than  one-half  (55.8  per  cent)  of  the  310 
girls  studied  from  the  schools  were  under  twenty-one 
years  of  age,  and  more  than  one-half  of  these  as  compared 
with  more  than  one-third  (39.7  per  cent)  of  the  total 
group  turned  all  their  earnings  into  the  family  fund. 
More  than  one-half  (51.6  per  cent)  paid  in  part  of  their 
earnings  as  board.  Less  than  10  per  cent  paid  nothing. 
The  amount  which  the  girl  is  expected  to  contribute  is 
often  quite  as  much  a  matter  of  point  of  view  based  on 
old-world  and  on  new-world  standards  as  on  economic 


HOME   LIFE  AND   RESPONSIBILITIES. 


167 


need.  While  only  a  little  more  than  one-fourth  (27  per 
cent)  of  the  girls  of  native-born  parentage  gave  all  they 
earned  towards  the  general  support  of  the  family,  almost 
one-half  (48.4  per  cent)  of  the  girls  of  foreign  parentage 
gave  all  their  earnings.  When  the  former  gave  over 
the  pay  envelope  unopened,  it  was  almost  always  because 
the  family  was  large,  the  father  was  ill,  or  for  some 
economic  reason,  but  the  girl  of  foreign-born  parents 
gave   hers   as    a   matter   of   course,  regardless   of   the 


Table  43. —  Showing  Amount  of  Contribution  to  the  Family  Income  by 
Nationality  of  the  Father. 


Girls  of  Each  Nationality  Contributing  Amount 
Specified. 

Total. 

Amount  of  Contribution. 

native-born 
parents. 

FOREIGN-BORN    PARENTS. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

TOTAL. 

ENGLISH 
SPEAKING. 

NON-ENGLISH 
SPEAKLNQ. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Cent. 

All  their  earnings 

Part  of  their  earnings 

None  of  their  earnings 

34 

76 
10 

27.0 
60.3 
12.7 

891 

84 

11' 

48.4 

45.6 

6.0 

50 
50 
41 

48.1 

48.1 

3.8 

39  > 
34 

7 

48.8 

42.5 

8.7 

123  > 
160 
27  > 

39.7 

51.6 

8.7 

Total 

126 

100.0 

184 

100.0 

104 

100.0 

80 

100.0 

310 

100  0 

1  One  unclassified. 


economic   situation.     It  might  be   quite  as  much  the 
result  of  custom  as  of  economic  strain. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  fathers'  occupation  as 
well  as  the  nationality  has  some  relation  to  the  girl's 
responsibility  to  the  home.  Almost  one-half  (45.8  per 
cent)  of  the  310  girls  with  whom  personal  interviews 
were  obtained  belonged  to  families  where  the  father  was 
doing  manual  work.  Over  two-fifths  (43.7  per  cent)  of 
these  girls  gave  all  of  their  earnings  towards  the  support 
of  the  family  and  loss  than  one-tenth  (7.7  per  cent) 
gave  none.  Girls  whose  fathers  were  business  or  pro- 
fessional men,  as  a  rule,  felt  less  pressure  and  were 


168 


WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


being  trained  by  their  parents  in  wise  and  independent 
use  of  their  income.  Shghtly  over  one-third  (35.3  per 
cent)  gave  all  and  over  one- tenth  (11.8  per  cent)  gave 
none  of  their  earnings. 

Where  the  father  was  dead  or  retired,  the  girl  was  apt 
to  be  one  of  the  supporters  if  not  the  mainstay  of  the 
family,  and  over  one- third  (37.9  per  cent)  of  these  gave 
all  their  earnings  into  the  family  fund,  while  more  than 


Table  44. —  Showing   Contribution    to   the   Family   Income   by 
Father's  Occupation. 


Number  Whose  Fathers  are  in  Each 

Occupation  Contributing  Specified 

Amount. 

Total. 

Amount  of  Contribution. 

MANUAL 

work. 

BUSINESS    OR 
PROFESSIONAL 
OCCUPATIONS. 

UNCLASSI- 
FIED.2 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 

Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

62 
69 
11 

43.7 

48.6 

7.7 

36 
54 
12 

35.3 
52.9 
11.8 

25 
37 
41 

37.9 

56.1 

6.0 

123 
160 
271 

39.7 

Part  of  their  earnings 

None  of  their  earnings 

51.6 

8.7 

Total 

142 

100.0 

102 

100.0 

661 

100.0 

310  > 

100  0 

1  One  adrift. 


*  See  note,  Table  39. 


one-half  (56.1  per  cent)  paid  in  part  and  only  a  very 
small  proportion  (6.0  per  cent)  gave  none  of  their 
earnings. 

The  number  of  younger  children  in  the  family  also 
determines  the  girl's  responsibility  to  the  family.  Slightly 
over  one-fifth  (22  per  cent)  of  those  reporting  had  more 
than  two  dependents  in  the  home  and  58.8  per  cent 
turned  in  all  of  their  earnings  as  compared  with  34.4 
per  cent,  who,  without  this  responsibility  at  home,  turned 
in  all  their  wage.  One-third  (33.6  per  cent)  had  one 
other  wage-earner  as  compared  with  less  than  one-fourth 
(24.4  per  cent)  given  in  the  Census  returns.^  Only  a  very 
small  proportion  (3.9  per  cent)  had  no  other  wage-earners 

'United  SUtes  Ceoaus,  1900,  Stalislics  of  Women  at  Work,  page  108. 


HOME   LIFE   AND   RESPONSIBILITIES.  169 

as  compared  with  6.4  per  cent  given  in  the  Census/ 
doubtless  because  these  girls  were  younger  and  the 
father  in  the  majority  of  cases  was  still  living. 

The  workers  in  this  skilled  group,  therefore,  seem  to 
have  greater  economic  independence  in  their  family 
relationships  than  is  discovered  among  those  in  stores 
and  factories.  The  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor 
found  in  1910  that  ''of  the  women  reported  in  New  York 
stores  84.3  per  cent,  and  of  those  in  factories  88.1  per 
cent,  contributed  all  their  earnings;  ...  It  is  true  that 
there  may  enter  into  the  large  percentage  for  the  factory 
workers  the  tendency  among  foreign-born  families  to 
regard  children  as  an  investment,  to  whose  earnings  the 
parents  have  a  proprietary  right  so  long  as  the  children 
are  under  the  parental  roof.  But  in  this  connection  it  is 
significant  that  among  the  women  in  department  and 
other  retail  stores,  where  the  foreign  element  enters  but 
slightly,  the  per  cent  turning  their  entire  earnings  into 
the  family  fund  is  not  much  smaller  than  among  the 
factory  and  mill  workers.  "^ 

Economic  pressure,  therefore,  does  not  seem  to  be  so 
serious  a  factor  in  this  occupation  as  in  stores  and  fac- 
tories. Doubtless,  many  of  the  girls  have  gone  to  work 
younger  and  less  adequately  equipped  than  really 
necessary,  because  they  were  tired  of  school  or  because 
they  "didn't  see  any  use  in  going  any  longer."  Many 
parents  and  girls  would  make  the  effort  to  secure  longer 
training  and  more  adequate  equipment  if  they  could  see 
its  real  value  and  importance. 

Such  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  home  life  and 
responsibilities  of  the  girls  who  come  to  the  high  schools 
for  business  training  is  essential  for  effective  instruction. 
Each  high  school  must  work  out  the  problem  of  its 
neighborhood,  which  varies  in  its  racial  background  as 
well  as  its  economic  and  intellectual  ideals.  To  sum- 
marize, the  five  high  schools  studied  draw  their  students 

1  United  States  Census,  1900,  Statistics  of  Women  at  Work,  page  108. 
*  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  Women  and  Child  Wage-earners  in  the  United  Stale*, 
Volume  V,  pages  18  and  19. 


170  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

from  all  sections  of  the  city  and  suburbs.  The  West  and 
South  Ends  with  almost  one-half,  East  Boston  and 
Roxbury  with  one-third,  have  the  larger  proportion  of 
foreign-born  inhabitants,  while  Charlestown  with  more 
than  two-thirds  and  Dorchester  with  almost  three-fourths 
have  the  greater  proportion  of  native-born  inhabitants 
in  their  population.  As  some  schools  have  a  large 
number  of  foreign-born,  while  others  have  a  majority  of 
native-born  to  deal  with,  it  is  necessary  for  the  school  to 
consider  the  variety  of  background  and  plan  the  cur- 
riculum  so  as  to  best  meet  the  needs  of  all  their  pupils. 

While  the  majority  of  girls  in  office  service  have  not 
gone  to  work  young,  many  who  have  must  go  back  to 
school  for  additional  preparation.  More  than  two-fifths 
of  those  attending  evening  school  had  gone  to  work  in 
the  lower  grades  of  office  service  before  the  age  of  sixteen 
years.  They  have  come  to  the  evening  school  for  fur- 
ther equipment,  because  they  have  found  their  pre- 
liminary preparation  inadequate.  Naturally  a  small 
proportion,  only  a  little  over  one-tenth  of  the  310 
girls  visited  in  the  homes,  had  gone  to  work  under 
sixteen  years  of  age,  because  two-thirds  were  high  school 
graduates  as  compared  with  one-third  of  those  studied 
through  offices.  The  natural  restlessness  characteristic 
of  girls  at  this  age,  economic  pressure  as  influenced  by 
the  father's  nationality  and  occupation  and  the  educa- 
tional aspirations  and  ideals  of  the  family  may  explain 
why  these  girls  have  gone  to  work  young  and  inade- 
quately prepared.  Only  a  little  more  than  one-third  of 
the  349  girls  in  office  service  attending  evening  school 
and  40  per  cent  of  the  310  visited  had  native-born 
parents.  The  fathers  of  only  about  one-fourth  of  either 
group,  however,  were  engaged  in  unskilled  work  or 
personal  service. 

Nationality  and  home  conditions  not  onh'  influence 
the  age  at  which  the  girl  must  go  to  work,  but  also  the 
amount  of  support  she  is  expected  to  contribute  to  her 
home.  But  one-fourth  of  the  girls  of  native-born 
parents  (who  constituted  40  per  cent  of  the  310  girls 


HOME   LIFE   AND   RESPONSIBILITIES.  171 

visited)  gave  all  they  earned  towards  the  general  sup- 
port of  the  family,  while  almost  one-half  of  the  girls 
of  foreign-born  parents  gave  all  of  their  earnings. 
Greater  economic  independence  in  their  family  relation- 
ship seemed  to  be  the  rule  among  women  in  office 
service  as  compared  with  store  and  factory  workers. 
Since  the  economic  condition  of  the  homes  of  the  girls 
in  office  service  seems  to  be  comparatively  comfortable, 
many  might  be  induced  to  continue  their  education,  if 
it  is  made  sufficiently  practical  and  interesting,  and  if 
both  child  and  parent  are  shown  the  importance  of  an 
adequate  preliminary  education. 


172  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 


CHAPTER   VI.— SUMMARY   AND   OUTLOOK 


May  Allinson 


Office  service  employing  more  than  five  hundred 
thousand  women  in  the  United  States  ranks  among  the 
foremost  occupations  for  women  in  its  opportunities 
for  development  and  advancement  and  in  the  superior 
conditions  of  work.  But  the  very  fact  that  financial 
opportunities  and  the  conditions  of  work  are  superior 
to  these  of  the  great  majority  of  women's  occupations, 
and  that  it  carries  with  it  a  certain  social  prestige  in 
the  working  world,  presents  a  problem  for  solution.  For 
office  service,  with  its  many  advantages,  is  the  ambition 
and  goal  of  a  great  many  girls  who,  because  of  inade- 
quate education  and  training,  the  lack  of  the  requisite 
personal  and  social  qualifications,  or  the  inabiUty  to 
secure  an  appreciation  of  the  needs  and  demands  of  the 
occupation,  not  only  fail  to  realize  their  own  highest 
possibilities  but  lower  the  standard  of  efficiency  in  the 
service. 

Training  for  this  occupation  has  been  a  long  series 
of  experiments,  with  little  systematic  or  scientific 
study  of  the  requisites  of  the  occupation  for  which 
preparation  was  offered.  The  private  business  schools 
which  sprang  up  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century  attempted  to  meet,  in  as  short  a  time  as  pos- 
sible, the  demands  of  increasing  business  for  skilled 
office  workers  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other,  the 
needs  of  prospective  workers  for  training  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  business  office.  These  schools, 
however,  provided  training  for  specific  processes  or 
machines  rather  than  for  the  vocation  in  a  large  sense. 
Nor   was   vocational   fitness,   adequacy   of   preliminary 


SUMMARY   AND  OUTLOOK.  173 

education,  or  the  desirability  of  establishing  a  uniformly- 
high  standard,  a  matter  of  serious  consideration. 

The  pubhc  high  schools  almost  half  a  century  later 
began  on  a  large  scale  to  cater  to  pubhc  demand  for 
"practical  courses,"  and  at  first  tacked  on  the  regular 
high  school  curriculum  an  occasional  course  in  book- 
keeping, stenography  and  typewriting.  Two  year 
courses  followed  by  three  year  courses  which  were, 
in  turn,  supplanted  by  four  and  occasionally  five  year 
courses  of  training  in  commercial  subjects  all  have  had 
their  place  in  the  history  of  pubhc  school  commercial 
education.  Recently,  "intensive"  two  year  and  three 
year  courses  are  again  being  offered,  attempting  to 
compete  with  the  short  courses  offered  by  the  private 
commercial  schools.  These  various  educational  schemes 
have  been  attempted  with  httle  or  no  intimate  knowl- 
edge of  the  needs  and  demands  of  the  business  office, 
nor  of  the  suitabihty  or  adaptability  of  the  students 
electing  these  courses.  All  who  desired  might  elect 
the  "curriculum  of  commercial  subjects,"  ranging  from 
two  to  five  years  in  length,  or  under  a  very  elastic 
system,  might  elect  any  number  of  particular  commercial 
subjects.  As  a  result,  pupils  with  a  preparation  rang- 
ing from  two  to  five  years  in  high  school  and  a  vocational 
equipment  based  on  from  four  to  thirty-six  points  in 
commercial  subjects  have  been  going  out  from  the 
public  high  schools  as  prospective  office  workers. 
And  the  pupil  has  been  left  to  choose  her  course  or  her 
particular  subjects  largely  at  will  with  little  or  no 
knowledge  of  the  requirements  of  office  work  and  of 
the  varying  demands  of  the  business  offices  themselves. 
At  the  opposite  extreme  are  the  women's  technical 
colleges  which  are  turning  out  the  "college  trained 
secretary"  with  a  four  year  technical  college  course  or 
four  year  academic  college  education  with  one  year's 
intensive  preparation  for  office  service. 

So-called  commercial  education  has  been  handicapped 
by  its  introduction  before  the  real  significance  and  the 
fundamental  principles  of  vocational  training  were  under- 


174  WOMEN  IN  OFFICE  SERVICE. 

stood  or  appreciated.  Efficiency  has  been  endangered 
by  the  lack  of  a  standard  or  definitely  formulated 
program  for  "commercial  education."  The  sponsorship 
for  commercial  education  assumed  by  private  business 
schools  of  all  grades  of  efficiency  has  produced  the 
problem  of  many  workers  with  inadequate  general 
education  and  limited  technical  skill.  The  introduc- 
tion of  ''commercial"  subjects  in  a  general  high  school 
course  or  even  a  "commercial  curriculum"  in  the  control 
of  academic  schoolmen  has  produced  the  worker  with 
inadequate  technical  and  vocational  preparation. 

A  recognition  of  four  fundamental  facts  is  essential 
for  effective  vocational  education.  First,  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  conditions  and  demands  of  the 
occupation  is  necessary.  From  the  personal  standpoint, 
the  school  must  know  what  degree  of  maturity,  physical 
strength,  education,  intelligence  and  original  thinking 
is  required  of  the  worker;  and  from  the  technical 
standpoint,  it  must  understand  the  processes,  methods, 
monotony  or  variety  of  work.  Second,  an  equally 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  background  and  char- 
acteristics of  the  prospective  worker  and  her  possibilities 
for  success  and  of  adjustment  to  the  demands  of  the 
occupation  is  essential.  Third,  on  the  basis  of  this 
knowledge,  applicants  for  training  should  be  carefully 
considered  and  tested  out.  They  should  be  given  a 
clear  understanding  of  the  occupation  to  which  they 
are  aspiring  and  of  its  conditions  and  requirements. 
Those  without  the  requisite  qualifications  or  any 
apparent  possibility  of  developing  them  should  be 
directed  into  lines  for  which  they  have  some  capacity 
and  interest.  Those  who  are  eligible  for  training  should 
be  carefully  studied,  that  the  qualities  in  which  they  are 
lacking  should  be  most  efficiently  supplemented  and 
developed.  When  the  pupil  has  completed  the  course 
of  training  the  school  should  make  every  effort  to  place 
her  in  the  position  where  she  has  greatest  opportunity 
to  develop  her  particular  abilities  and  can  give  the  most 


SUMMARY   AND   OUTLOOK.  175 

efficient  service.  Fourth,  close  co-operation  with  the 
pupil  who  has  gone  to  work  and  with  her  employer  will 
enable  the  educator  to  profit  by  the  experience  of  all 
concerned  and  to  continually  adjust  the  curriculum  to 
changing  requirements.  Vocational  education  based 
on  these  four  principles  has  three  most  desirable  results. 
First,  it  will  save  the  girl  without  the  requisite  qualifica- 
tions from  disappointment  and  failure  in  an  occupation 
in  which  she  has  no  chance  for  success.  Second,  it  will 
raise  the  standard  of  the  occupation.  Third,  it  will 
provide  those  eligible  for  the  occupation  with  the 
equipment  which  the  prospective  worker  must  have  to 
insure  success  and  advancement. 

The  investigator  can  lay  the  corner  stone  for  the 
tremendous  task  which  confronts  the  vocational  educator 
by  providing  a  general  survey  of  the  occupation  as  a 
whole.  The  educator,  with  this  general  information  as 
a  background,  can  work  out  and  adapt  to  the  individual 
cases  with  which  he  deals,  the  application  of  the  funda- 
mental facts  discovered.  The  vocational  guide  and 
placement  agent,  in  the  light  of  the  information  provided 
both  by  investigator  and  educator,  may  direct  and  place 
the  young  worker  so  as  to  secure  the  most  satisfactory 
and  economic  adjustment  of  demand  and  supply. 

Office  service  is  particularly  worthy  of  careful  study 
by  those  interested  in  vocational  education  for  women 
because  of  its  superior  conditions  and  opportunities. 
One-third  of  its  one  million  and  a  half  workers  in  1910 
were  women.  One  of  its  three  divisions,  stenography 
and  typewriting,  is  increasingly  monopolized  by  women, 
who  in  1910  constituted  more  than  four-fifths  the  total 
number  employed  in  the  occupation.  The  wage  scale 
is  much  higher  than  that  of  the  better  industries  and  of 
the  other  great  commercial  occupation,  salesmanship. 
Only  one-sixth  of  the  1,177  women  studied  through  a 
local  canvass  of  offices  earned  less  than  $8  and  the 
average  wage  for  the  entire  group  was  $11.  Civil 
Service  office  workers  have  a  still  higher  wage  scale, 


176  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

only  1.2  per  cent  earning  less  than  $8.  Nor  is  the  wage 
in  office  service  greatly  reduced  by  various  factors  as  in 
most  other  occupations,  for  holidays,  vacations  and  illness 
were  paid  for  in  the  great  majority  of  cases.  It  has  been 
found  that  the  nominal  and  actual  earnings  of  the 
clerical  worker  were  more  nearly  identical  than  in  any 
of  the  six  large  women-employing  occupations.  More- 
over, hours  were  shorter  and  the  physical  conditions  of 
work  better  for  the  majority  than  in  most  lines  of  work. 

Opportunity  for  advancement  and  conditions  of  work 
may  be  influenced  by  such  external  influences  as  the 
nature  of  the  employer's  business,  the  system  of  office 
management,  or  conditions  in  a  particular  office,  but 
the  fundamental  basis  is  education  plus  individual 
capacity.  Such  personal  characteristics  as  intelligence, 
a  quick  grasp  of  essentials,  capacity  for  initiative, 
responsibility,  easy  adjustment  and  adaptability  to 
conditions,  are  most  vital  and  are  easily  recognized  in 
the  study  of  an  individual,  but  they  are  intangible  from  a 
statistical  standpoint.  Education,  maturity  and  length 
of  experience  in  its  relation  to  advancement,  however, 
can  be  definitely  measured  in  a  study  of  large  numbers. 
Education  seems  to  be  the  most  important  influence 
in  office  service,  determining  the  occupation  a  girl  can 
enter,  the  initial  wage  and  the  length  of  experience 
requisite  to  earn  a  high  wage.  The  stenographers  show 
the  most  education  and  the  highest  earning  capacity. 
Three-fourths  had  a  high  school  education  or  its  equiva- 
lent, more  than  one-half  had  had  additional  technical 
training  in  business  college,  and  one-half  earned  $12 
and  over.  Almost  two-thirds  of  the  clerks  had  not 
had  a  high  school  education  or  its  equivalent,  about 
one-sixth  had  had  additional  technical  training,  and 
three-fourths  earned  less  than  $12.  More  than  one-half 
the  stenographers,  while  more  than  three-fourths  of  the 
clerks,  began  with  an  initial  wage  of  less  than  $8.  So, 
also,  the  stenographer  with  greater  education  reached 
the  same  wage  in  shorter  time  than  the  clerk. 

Such  a  survey  of  the  occupation  of  office  service  yields 


SUMMARY  AND   OUTLOOK.  177 

suggestions  to  educator  and  placement  agent ;  to  parent 
and  child;   and  to  the  business  man. 
For  the  commercial  educator: 

1.  Recognition  and  application  of  the  four  funda- 
mental principles  of  vocational  education  are  essential 
for  efficiency.    These  are: 

(1.)  Acquaintance  with  business  demands  and  the 
trend  of  development. 

(2.)  Knowledge  of  the  equipment  and  of  the 
possibilities  of  the  prospective  worker. 

(3.)  Training  closely  correlated  within  the  various 
divisions  of  the  educational  system  with 
business  demands  and  with  the  pupil's 
needs. 

(4.)  Placement,  close  connection  with  w^orker  and 
employer  and  resultant  adjustment  of  cur- 
riculum. 

2.  The  direct  relation  between  education  and  oppor- 
tunity for  advancement  shows  the  obvious  advantage 
of  a  four  year  high  school  course  for  all  who  can  avail 
themselves  of  it.  The  concrete  advantages  of  education 
should  be  made  clear  to  all  parents  and  pupils,  and  all 
who  possibly  can  should  be  urged  to  take  the  four  year 
course. 

3.  A  fifth  year  intensive  course  of  technical  training 
might  well  be  developed  in  all  high  schools  where  the 
attendance  would  justify,  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  com- 
paratively large  proportion  who  go  to  private  business 
colleges  for  additional  technical  training.  The  resultant 
financial  advantage  to  the  worker  is  apparent. 

4.  Shortened  undergraduate  courses  in  the  day  high 
school  for  the  skilled  occupations  in  office  service  seem 
to  be  a  very  questionable  experiment  in  the  light  of  the 
study  of  workers  in  office  service. 

5.  The  continuation  courses  offered  in  the  evening 
high  schools  for  those  who  have  gone  to  work  before 
completing  or  even  entering  the  course  offered  by  the 
day  high  schools  might  well  be  supplemented  by  careful 
vocational  advice  to  each  applicant  for  training.     So, 


178  WOMEN   IN   OFFICE  SERVICE. 

also,  may  these  courses  be  made  more  efficient  and 
helpful  by  the  resultant  intimate  acquaintance  with  the 
needs  of  each  individual. 

6.  Part-time  schooling  for  office  service  seems  to 
promise  three  real  advantages: 

(1.)  Preliminary  initiation  of  the  prospective 
worker  into  the  business  world  which  gives 
appreciation  of  its  demands  and  conditions 
and  a  real  significance  to  the  courses  given 
in  the  school. 

(2.)  Opening  up  of  opportunities  for  placement  of 
the  pupil  workers  who  have  satisfactorily 
met  the  requirements. 

(3.)  Close  co-operation  and  an  intelligent  under- 
standing between  employer  and  educator. 

7.  Office  service  is  in  a  state  of  transition  because 
of  the  growth  of  the  large  office,  development  of  improved 
methods  of  office  administration,  and  introduction  of 
time  and  labor  saving  machinery.  The  educator  must 
keep  in  close  touch  with  business  men  and  offices,  con- 
tinually adjusting  his  curriculum  to  meet  the  changing 
demands. 

For  the  placement  agency  if  conducted  separately 
from  but  in  conjunction  with  the  school: 

1.  An  intimate  acquaintance  with  particular  offices 
and  employers  is  necessary  if  the  advisor  would  know 
the  requisite  qualifications  of  the  workers  and  the 
methods  of  business.  For,  since  office  service  is  in  a 
state  of  transition,  different  kinds  of  offices  make 
different  demands.  The  larger  office  may  wish  special- 
ized workers,  the  small  office  general  workers.  One 
office  wishes  mature  workers  capable  of  assuming 
initiative  and  responsibility.  Another  office  requires 
primarily  manual  workers  who  are  expected  to  follow 
instructions  under  supervision. 

2.  The  vocational  guide  can  do  an  important  social 
service  by  advising  parent  and  prospective  worker  of 
conditions  and  requirements  of  the  occupation.  She 
can  point  out  the  real  advantage  of  adequate  prepara- 


SUMMARY   AND   OUTLOOK.  179 

tion  and  a  general  education,  not  only  in  the  higher 
initial  wage  and  superior  openings  available,  but  in 
shortening  the  length  of  time  necessary  to  reach  a  high 
wage. 

3.  The  placement  agency  and  vocational  educators 
should  be  in  closest  touch,  the  experience  and  knowl- 
edge acquired  by  each  being  put  at  the  disposal  of  the 
other.  Some  standard  test  of  capacity  and  efficiency 
should  be  formulated.  Applicants  without  the  capacity 
or  opportunity  for  acquiring  the  requisite  equipment  for 
success  should  be  directed  into  something  within  their 
reach.  Trained  workers  should  be  directed  into  those 
offices  where  their  personal  experience  and  abiUties 
have  greatest  opportunities  for  expression. 

For  the  business  man : 

1.  He  may  help  the  educator  formulate  a  standard 
of  efficiency  in  education,  technique  and  personal 
requirements  to  which  all  accredited  pupils  must 
measure  up. 

2.  He  may  help  the  educator  initiate  the  pros- 
pective worker  into  the  atmosphere  of  the  business 
world  and  an  appreciation  of  its  requirements  by  (1) 
talks  with  and  suggestions  to  the  educators  and  classes 
in  the  school  and  (2)  by  co-operating  in  the  part-time 
schooling  scheme  in  so  far  as  feasible  with  efficiency  in 
the  office. 


INDEX 


Academic  Students,  rating  compared 
with  that  of  commercial  students, 
28-29;  persistence  in  school, 
29-31. 

Academic  Teachers,  co-operation 
with  commercial  teachers  pro- 
posed, 62-63. 

Accountants,  see  Bookkeepers. 

Administrative  Clerks,  see  Clerks. 

Advancement,  as  reason  for  change 
of  positions,  102,  104;  factors 
determining,  111-112;  fundamen- 
tal basis  for,  125;  influence  of 
education  on,  147;  conditions 
influencing,  176. 

Advertisement,  as  means  of  securing 
work,  96,  97,  100. 

Age,  factor  in  determining  earning 
capacity,  122-123;  wage  by  age, 
table  showing,  122;  influence  on 
beginning  wage,  146-147;  office 
workers  living  at  home,  157-158; 
office  workers  living  away  from 
home,  159;  girls  from  school 
group,  166. 

Age  at  Beginning  Work,  51, 160-165; 
wide  variation  in,  160-161;  occu- 
pation of  father  in  relation  to, 
table  showing,  161;  nationality  of 
father  in  relation  to,  table  show- 
ing, 165. 

Agencies,  see  Employment  Agencies. 

Application,  as  means  of  securing 
employment,  96,  97,  100. 

Banks,  salaries  and  office  conditions, 
84. 

Beginning  Wage,  see  Initial  Wage. 

Benefit  Societies,  among  office 
workers,  110. 

Bookkeeper,  definition  of,  75. 

Bookkeepers,  number  of  women  em- 
ployed as,  3;  two  year  course  for, 
27;  proportion  of  high  school 
graduates  among,  35;  proportion 
of  women,  75,  76;  methods  of 
securing  work,  table  showing,  96; 
lack  of  legal  restriction  on  hours, 
105;  sccretariiil  oi)portunities, 
121;  educational  cciuipment,  146; 
marital  condition,  166. 
Wages,  group  studied,  37,  71;  civil 
service  positions,    table  showing. 


116;  workers  registered  in  em- 
ployment bureau,  table  showing, 
118;  chart,  119;  workers  in  offices, 
table  showing,  120;  majority  of 
workers,  124;  workers  with  6 
years'  experience  or  less,  143; 
initial  wage,  144. 

Bookkeeping,  value  of  knowledge  to 
office  worker,  77. 

Boot  and  Shoe  Industry,  wage  of 
women  workers,  113. 

Boston  Placement  Bureau,  scope, 
100. 

Business,  number  of  women  em- 
ployed in,  1. 

Business  Attitude,  demand  for,  in 
office  workers,  90-91. 

Business  Education,  see  Commer- 
cial Courses. 

Business  Ethics,  need  for  school 
instruction  regarding,  64,  65,  92; 
importance  of,  91. 

Business  Experience,  opportunities 
offered  high  school  students,  27, 
28,  65,  66,  67. 

Business  Men,  co-operation  of,  with 
schools,  67-68,  179.  See  also 
Employers. 

Business  Personality,  see  Person- 
ality. 

Business  Schools,  see  Commercial 
Schools. 

Business  Women,  co-operation  with 
schools  advised,  68. 

Cashiers,  see  Bookkeepers. 

Charlestow^n,  i)opulation  and  charac- 
ter of  district,  153. 

Charlestow^n  High  School,  neigh- 
borhood, 151,  156. 

Civil  Service,  women  employed  in 
office  service  under,  20;  salaries, 
87;  wage  scale,  115,  116,  118,  119, 
120,  175-176;  highlv  paid  clerk- 
ships, 121. 

Clerical  High  School,  plan  of  work, 
23,  53. 

Clerical  Training,  results  from  two 
year  course,  1 1 . 

Clerical  Work,  number  of  women 
employed  in,  1,  3;  opportunities 
for  women,  74-75;  proportion  of 
women  engaged  in,  75,  76. 


181 


182 


INDEX. 


Clerical  Workers,  number  of  women 
employed  as,  1,3;  proportion  of, 
in  group  studied,  35;  attendance 
at  evening  school,  52;  openings 
for,  53;  classification  of,  74;  in 
factories,  84;  methods  of  securing 
employment,  table  showing,  96; 
handicaps,  97;  lack  of  legal  restric- 
tion upon  hours,  105;  working 
hours,  105-106;  administrative 
positions  in  civil  service,  121-122; 
age,  123;  at  beginning  work,  146; 
experience  in  relation  to  wage, 
131-139;  chart  showing,  133; 
table,  135;  schooling  and  experi- 
ence in  relation  to  wage,  chart 
showing,  137;  marital  conditions, 
166. 
Educational  equipment,  group  stud- 
ied, 75,  125-131,  134,  137,  140, 
147,  148,  176;  table  shov/ing,  126; 
relation  of  schooling  to  wage, 
chart  showing,  127;  table,  128. 
Wages,  group  studied,  36,  37,  71, 
75;  in  civil  service  positions,  87; 
table  showing,  116;  group  regis- 
tered in  employment  bureau, 
table  showing,  118;  chart,  119; 
office  workers,  table,  120;  civil 
service  clerkships,  121;  average 
wage,  114;  group  wage,  123-124, 
147-148;  workers  with  six  years' 
experience  or  less,  143;  initial 
wage,  143-144,  148. 

Clothing  Factory,  requirements  of 
office  workers,  S3. 

Co-education,  advantage  of,  in  com- 
mercial training,  26-27. 

College  Graduates,  salaries,  138; 
financial  advantage  over  non- 
college  women,  138-139. 

College  Trained  Secretary,  125; 
salaries,  139;  course,  173. 

Commercial  Courses,  see  High 
Schools,  commercial  courses. 

Commercial  Education,  distinct  prob- 
lems of,  57-58;  importance  of 
vocational  guidance  in,  58,  59; 
handicap,  173-174.  See  also 
Technical  Training. 

Commercial  Schools,  growth  of,  in 
United  States,  5,  6-8;  proportion 
of  women  students  in,  5-6,  7; 
subjects  taught,  7;  proportion  of 
students  trained  in,  8;  public 
school  training  supplemented  by, 
37-38,  39,  40;  table,  38;  place- 
ments, 4f>-41,  99-100;  wages  of 
office  workers  trained  in,  130,  141, 
142;  character  of  training  pro- 
vided, 172,  174.  See  also  High 
Schools. 


Commercial  Students,  persistence  in 
school  compared  with  academic 
students,  29-31,  70-71. 

Continuation  Courses,  evening  high 
schools,  43,  46,  177-178. 

Contribi'tion  to  Family  Support, 
166-169,  170,  171;  by  nationality 
of  father,  table  showing,  167;  by 
occupation  of  father,  table  show- 
ing, 168. 

Co-operative  Schooling,  see  Part- 
time  Schooling. 

Co-ORDiNATOR,  value  of,  to  schools 
and  employers,  66;  relation  to 
placement  work,  69. 

Copyists,  see  Clerical  Workers. 

Court  Reporter,  salary,  85. 

Cultural  Subjects,  correlation  of, 
with  practical  work,  62-64. 

Curriculum,  high  school  commercial 
course,  32;  evening  commercial 
high  school,  46;  influence  of 
home  environment  of  pupils  on, 
150. 

Departmental     System,      in     high 

schools,  26. 
Department  Stores,  office  force,  82- 

83;    composition    of,    115;    wage 

scale,  S3,  113. 
Dependents,    see  Contribution    to 

Family  Support. 
Dictaphone,  use  and  effect  of,  94-95. 
Dorchester,  population  and  charac- 
ter of  district,  154-155. 
Dorchester  High  School,  placement 

bureau,    14;    neighborhood,    151, 

156. 
Dress,  attitude  of  employers  towards, 

90;  business  requirements,  91. 

East  Boston,  population  and  charac- 
ter of  district,  152-153. 

East  Boston  High  School,  neighbor- 
hood, 151,  156. 

Economic  Independence,  office 
workers,  169,  171. 

Economic  Pressure,  as  cause  for  chil- 
dren leaving  school,  32,  33,  48,  70; 
indications  of,  162;  as  factor  with 
office  workers,  169. 

Education,  effect  on  occupation  and 
salary,  23;  relation  to  ocruj)ation, 
35-36;  table  showing,  36;  influ- 
ence on  occupation  and  wage,  125, 
126,  147,  148,  149;  effect  on  wage, 
27,  43,  71,  132,  138;  chart  show- 
inir,  1.37;  commercial  advantage  of, 
139;  relation  to  earning  capacity, 
126-131,  162;  chart  showing,  127; 
table,  128;  importance  of,  in  office 
service,  61-62,  89,   148-149;  im- 


INDEX. 


183 


portance    of,    to    secretary,    79; 
equipment  of  office  workers,  125- 
131;  table  showing,  126;  value  to 
workers  in  office  service,  140;  table 
showing,  141;   relation   to   initial 
wage,  143,  145,  146;  table  show- 
ing, 145;  relation  to  advancement, 
43,  176,  177,  179. 
Educational    Institutions,     oppor- 
tunity for  stenographers,  86. 
Efficiency,  of  commercial  courses,  71; 
of  girls  trained  for  office  service  in 
the  schools,  114;  standard  for,  in 
education  required,  179. 
Efficient  Stenographer,   definition 

of,  90. 
Elective  System,  in  high  schools,  41- 
42;  danger  in,  63;  restriction  of, 
advised,  72. 
Employers,    types    of,    80;    varying 
requirements,  87-89;  qualities  de- 
manded in  worker,  140,  149,  156. 
Employment,  methods  of  securing,  see 

Positions,  methods  of  securing. 
Employment  Agencies,  office  positions 
secured  through.  96,  98,  99;  fees, 
99;  wages  of  office  workers  regis- 
tered with,  117-118;  table  show- 
ing, 118. 
English,    rating   of   commercial   and 

academic  students  in,  28-29. 
Environment  of  Pupils,  knowledge 
of,  essential  for  schools,  59-60, 150, 
169-170. 
Ethics   of   Business,   see   Business 

Ethics. 
Evening  Commercial  High  Schools, 
scope  of  study  regarding,  18; 
occupations  of  girl  students,  18, 
20;  per  cent  employed  in  oflSce 
service,  31;  proportion  at  work 
before  16,  31-32;  reasons  for 
attendance,  42;  enrollment,  43; 
persoimel,  43,  45;  courses,  45-46; 
problems,  45,  49;  age  of  girls  en- 
rolled, 47-48;  table  showing,  47; 
previous  education  and  training, 
48,  53,  54;  occupations,  49-52; 
table  showing,  50;  girls  in  office 
service,  52;  length  of  working 
day,  50-51;  unit  courses,  pur- 
po.se  of,  55-56;  foreign  element, 
155;  age  at  which  pupils  went  to 
work,  161,  lt)2;  occupations  of 
fathers,  table  showing,  163. 
Evening      Schools,      sec      Evening 

COM.MKRCIAL    HiGH    ScHOOLS. 

Experience,  relation  to  earning 
capacity,  44,  45,  131-143;  charts, 
45,  133;   table,    135. 

Eye  Strain,  resulting  from  office 
work,  109. 


Factories,  hours  of  work  in,  50;  re- 
quirements of  oflBce  workers,  83- 
84;  wages,  84;  opportunity  for 
advancement,  84. 

Family  Support,  see  Contribution 
TO  Family  Support. 

Fatigue,  problem  in  evening  school 
work,  50-51. 

Fees,  typewriter  agencies,  98;  paid 
agencies,  99. 

Finishing  Courses,  at  business  col- 
leges, 40. 

Foreign  Element,  school  neighbor- 
hoods, 151-156;  evening  schools, 
155. 

Foreign  Parentage,  relation  to  age 
at  which  children  go  to  work, 
48-49. 

Four  Year  Commercial  Course, 
question  as  to  advisability  of 
shortening,  37. 

Friends,  employment  secured  tlirough, 
96-97,  100. 

Girls,  proportion  in  high  schools 
studying  commercial  subjects,  12, 
13,  25-26;  returns  from  graduates, 
13;  per  cent  of  graduates  with 
commercial  training,  28;  reasons 
for  leaving  school,  31-32;  occupa- 
tions in  office  service,  52;  educa- 
tion and  training,  52-55;  wages, 
55. 

Girls'  High  School,  neighborhood, 
151,  155,  156. 

Grammar  School  Education,  per 
cent  of  evening  school  pupils 
having,  54. 

Grammar  School  Pupils,  wages  in 
office  service,  128, 130,  141;  initial 
wage,  145. 

Grammar  School  Teachers,  con- 
nection with  high  school  voca- 
tional counselors,  59. 

Health,  effect  of  oflBce  service  on, 
109-110. 

High  School  Graduates,  per  cent  of 
girls  with  commercial  training, 
28-29;  occupational  statistics,  34- 
35;  pro]wrtion  employed  in  office 
service,  34;  proportion  taking  addi- 
tional training,  37,  3S,  39,  43, 
44;  wages,  39;  by  experience,  45; 
coini>ared  with  non-graduates, 
126-129,  130,  131,  134,  1.35,  136, 
138,  141,  142;  girl.s  trained  in 
office  service,  114;  initial  wage, 
144,  145,  148. 

High  School  Tr.vining,  need  of,  for 
clerical  workers,  140. 


184 


INDEX. 


High  Schools,  proportion  of  commer- 
cial students  trained  in,  8-9; 
table  showing,  9;  number  offering 
commercial  courses  for  girls,  25; 
departmental  system,  26 ;  dropping 
out  of  pupils  in  second  year, 
30-31,  7(>-71;  placements  of  grad- 
uates, 99,  100-101;  nativity  of 
pupils,  151-156. 
Commercial  courses,  two  year  course, 

9,  10,  11,  27;  three  and  four  year 
courses,  10-11;  students  enrolled, 

10,  12,  70;  results  from  intensified 
clerical  course,  11;  nature  of 
courses,  26,  70;  one  year  course, 
27-28;  methods  for  increasing 
efficiency,  58-73;  lack  of  uni- 
formity, 173;  five  year  course,  177. 

See     also     Evening     Commercial 
High  Schools. 

Hiring  Office  Help,  methods  of, 
67-68. 

Holidays,  pay  for,  in  office  service, 
108,  112. 

Home  Life,  women  in  oflBce  service, 
150-171. 

Hours  OF  Employment,  105-107,  112; 
night  school  pupils,  50-51;  opinion 
of  Attorney  General,  105;  weekly 
hours  in  office  service,  table  show- 
ing, 106. 
See  also  Overtime. 

Hygiene,  importance  of,  in  connection 
with  commercial  training,  109. 

Illness,  loss  of  time  on  account  of, 
110,  112. 

Initial  Wage,  by  schooling,  chart 
showing,  39;  effect  of  education 
on,  143,  145,  146,  148;  influence 
of  age  on,  146-147;  clerks  and 
stenographers,  148. 

Initiative,  demand  for,  in  secretaries, 
88. 

Instability  of  Workers,  see  Sta- 
bility OF  Workers. 

Insurance  Office,  opportunity  for 
stenographers,  86. 

Intensified  Commercial  Course, 
for  stenographers,  140;  in  public 
high  schools,  173. 

Investigation,  see  School  Inves- 
tigation. 

Lawyers,  character  of  office  work  for, 
85. 

Living  Condition.s,  women  in  office 
service,  157-160;  wage  in  relation 
to,  table  showing,  1.58;  number 
living  at  home,  1.5S,  1.59,  160. 

Living  Wage,  36,  113,  123,  124. 


Machine  Operating,  wages,  61. 
Machines     for     Office     Use,     see 

Office  Appliances. 
Marital  Condition,  women  in  office 

service,    165-166;   table  showing, 

166. 
Men,  preference  for,  as  stenographers 

in  certain  offices,  78. 
Mercantile  Establishments,  hours 

of  work  in,  51. 
Minimum  Wage,  see  Living  Wage. 
Monotony,   in   connection   with  ma- 
chine operating,  61. 
Mothers,  attitude  towards  daughters' 

work,  156-157. 

Nationality  of  Father,  in  relation 
to  age  of  girl  at  beginning  work, 
165,  170;  table  showing,  165. 

Nativity,  population  of  school  neigh- 
borhoods, 151-156;  table  showing, 
153;   girls  in  high  schools,  155. 

Nervous  Strain,  resulting  from  office 
work,  110. 

Nominal  Wage,  see  Wages. 

North  End,  Boston,  character  of 
district,  151. 

Occupation  of  Father,  relation  to 
school  course  elected  by  children, 
32-33;  table  showing,  33;  effect 
on  schooling  of  children,  48; 
relation  to  age  children  begin 
work,  161,  162,  163;  table  show- 
ing, 163. 

Occupations,  women,  chart  showing, 
3;  high  school  pupils,  34-35; 
girls  in  evening  high  schools, 
49,  50,  51,  52;  table,  50;  girls  in 
office  service,  52;  age  groujis,  123. 

Office  Appliances,  course  in,  40; 
introduction  of,  in  training  schools, 
60-01;  problem  involved,  61; 
effect  of  introduction  on  office 
work,  92-95. 

Office  Etiquette,  breaches  of,  64-65. 

Office  Service,  number  of  women  in, 
by  Census  i)eriods,  1;  occupa- 
tions included,  2;  types  of  work- 
ers, 2-4;  definition  of  term,  4; 
training  for,  6-24;  working  con- 
ditions, 51,  10.5-110;  hours  of 
employment,  51,  105-107;  de- 
mands of  employer,  .58;  impor- 
tance of  general  education,  61-62; 
character  of  work,  74-112;  num- 
ber of  j)ersons  emi)loyed  in,  74: 
classification  of,  74,  121;  lack  of 
uniformity  in,  88-89,  111;  prob- 
lem in  training  for,  89;  opportu- 
nities, 112;  wages,  113-119;  home 
life  of  workers,  150-171. 


INDEX. 


185 


One  Year  Clerical  Course,  27-28. 

Overtime,  in  office  service,  107,  108, 

112;  payment  for,  107-108. 

Part-^ime  Schooling,  as  preparation 
for  office  service,  58,  59;  aid  in 
problem  of  business  training,  65, 
67;  value  in  placement  work,  68- 
69;  advantages  of,  72,  178. 

Persistence  in  School,  academic  and 
commercial  students  compared, 
29-31;  table  showing,  31;  causes 
for  leaving  school,  31-32,  70. 

Personal  Appearance,  see  Person- 
ality and  Dress. 

Personality,  importance  of,  in  office 
service,  58;  business  demand  for, 
64,  89;  equipment  for,  72;  impor- 
tance of,  in  securing  position,  89- 
90;  prime  factors  in,  91;  training 
in,  required,  92. 

Phonography,  see  Stenography. 

Physical  Effects  of  Work,  109-110. 

Physicians,  character  of  office  work, 
84,  85. 

Placement  Bureau,  see  Boston 
Placement  Bureau. 

Placement  of  Graduates,  through 
part-time  plan,  72-73;  problem  of 
school,  100-101. 

Placement  Work,  in  commercial 
schools,  40-41,  99-100;  impor- 
tance of,  68-69,  70;  conducted  by 
typewTiter  agencies,  98;  number 
placed,  103;  requirement's  for 
efficiency,  178-179. 

Population,  school  neighborhoods, 
151-156. 

Positions,  methods  of  securing,  69, 
96-100,  112;  reasons  for  change 
of,  104. 

Post-graduate  Commercial 
Courses,  27-28,  42,  43. 

"Practical  Minded"  Students,  29, 
70. 

Practice  Work,  see  Business  Ex- 
perience. 

Private  Commercial  Schools,  see 
Commercial  Schools. 

Promotion,  see  Advancement. 

Public  High  Schools,  see  High 
Schools. 

Public  Stenographers,  assistants, 
86;  wages,  87. 

Qualifications  for  Business  Suc- 
cess, 89-92,  176. 

Real   Estate   Offices,    opportunity 

for  stenograplier,  85-86. 
Relative.'^,    employment    secured 

through,  96-97,  100. 


Requisites  for  Business  Success, 
see  Qualifications  for  Business 
Success. 

Restlessness,  as  reason  for  leaving 
school,  162,  170. 

Retail  Establishments,  see  Mer- 
cantile Establishments  and 
Department  Stores. 

RoxBURY,  population  and  character 
of  district,  153-154. 

RoxBURY  High  School,  intensified 
clerical  course,  11;  neighborhood, 
151-156. 

Salaries,  secretaries,  79;  by  length  of 
experience,  87;  factors  determin- 
ing, 124;  college  graduates,  138, 
139. 

Salesmanship,  number  of  women  em- 
ployed in,  2,  3;  hours  of  work, 
105;  training  courses,  26-27;  part- 
time  plan  in  connection  with,  66. 

Schooling,  see  Education. 

School  Investigation,  sample  sched- 
ules, 16,  17,  19,  21. 

School  Neighborhoods,  population 
and  character  of  districts,  151-156. 

Schools,  knowledge  of  environment  of 
pupils  important,  169,  170;  rec- 
ommendations for  increasing  ef- 
ficiency, 174-175,  177-179. 

Seasonal  Demand,  in  office  service, 
102,  104. 

Secretarial  Position,  goal  of  stenog- 
raphers, 78,  111. 

Secretaries,  number  among  high 
school  graduates,  35;  distinction 
from  stenographer,  78,  121;  req- 
uisites, 78-79;  salary,  79,  124; 
workers  with  six  years'  or  less 
experience,  143;  initial  wage,  144; 
hours  of  employment,  106-107; 
age,  123;  educational  equipment, 
146. 

Sedentary  N.\ture  of  Office  Work, 
110. 

Selling  Agencies,  see  Wholesale 
Houses. 

Shoe  Factory,  office  force,  84. 

Shorthand,  see  Stenography-. 

Shorthand  Writers,  number  of 
women,  1870,  4,  6.  .See  aho 
Stenographers  and  Typists. 

Situation  Depart.ment,  commercial 
schools,  see  Placement  Work. 

South  End,  Bo.ston,  population  and 
character  of  district,  151-152. 

Stability  of  Workers,  101-102. 

Standardization,  lack  of,  in  commer- 
cial courses,  173-174;  recommend- 
ations, 179. 


186 


INDEX. 


State    Free   Employment   Agency, 
office    workers    placed    by,    96; 
number  registered,  99. 
Stenographers,    number   of    women 
employed  as,  3,  77;  in  1870,  4;  by 
Census    periods,    6;    high    school 
courses  for,  27 ;  projiortion  among 
school  group  studied,  35;    educa- 
tional advantage  over  clerks,  77; 
wage  advantage,   78;    preference 
for  men  in  certain  offices,  78;  sec- 
retarial opportunity,  78, 121 ;  place- 
ments by  typewTiter  agencies,  80; 
effect  of  stenotype  and  dictaphone 
on,  95;  methods  of  securing  work, 
96-100;  stability  in  position,  101; 
hours    of    employment,    105-106; 
age,  123;   age  at  beginning  work, 
146;  marital  condition,  169. 
Educational       equipment,       group 
studied,   125,  126,  127,    129,  130, 
131, 137, 140, 141,  146,  176;  educa- 
tion and  wage,  137,  141,  142,  148; 
chart  showing,  137;  table,  141. 
Opportunity,    in    selling    office    of 
wholesale  house,   82;    in  depart- 
ment store,  83;   in  factory,  84;  in 
bank    and    trust    company,    84; 
physician's    office,    85;     lawyer's 
office,  85;  real  estate  office,  85-86; 
insurance  office,  86 ;  social  agency, 
library,   and  educational  institu- 
tion, 86. 
Wages,  group  studied,  37,  71,   119, 
120;  workers  placed  by  typewTiter 
agencies,  80,  117;  in  selling  offices 
of    wholesale   houses,    82;     retail 
estabUshments,  83;    factories,  84; 
banks  and  trust  companies,   84; 
physicians'    offices,    85;    la\\yers' 
offices,    85;    assistants   of   pubUc 
stenographers,    87;     civil    serv-ice 
positions,  87,  116;    average  wage, 
114;    group  registered   with  em- 
ployment   bureau,    118;     highest 
wage  reported,  121;    wage  group- 
ing, 123-124;    experience  in  rela- 
tion to,  131-139;    compared  with 
that    of    clerk,     136;     ma>Limum 
wage,  138;    additional  training  in 
relation  to,  142;  initial  wage,  143- 
14(i,   148;    workers  with  6  years' 
experience  or  loss,  143. 

Stenographic  Test,  in  typewriter 
agencies,  81,  98,  116-117. 

Stenography,  introduction  of,  into 
United  .States,  4;  monopoly  of,  by 
women,  175. 

Stenotype,  93-94,  95;  advantages 
of,  94. 

Support  of  Family,  see  Contribu- 
tion to  Family  Support. 


Technical  Training,  as  supplement 
to  high  school  course,  126;  effect 
on  wage,  128-130,  142-143,  145- 
146,  148;  advantages  of,  148. 

Temporary  Work,  factor  in  office  ser- 
vice, 68,  102-105,  112;  positions 
filled  by  typewriter  agencies,  103, 
104-105. 

Trade  and  Transportation,  number 
of  women  employed  in,  1. 

Training,  for  office  service,  character 
of,  172-179. 

Trust  Companies,  see  Banks. 

Two  Year  Clerical  Courses,  in 
high  schools,  27. 

Typewriter,  development  of,  4-5; 
effect  of  introduction  on  personnel 
of  office  force,  92 ;  extent  of  use,  93. 

Typewriter  Agencies,  placement 
records,  20;  number  placed,  80; 
type  of  workers,  81;  office  posi- 
tions secured,  96,  98;  methods, 
98,  99;  temporary  and  permanent 
workers,  103;  proportion  of 
temporarj'  placements,  104-105; 
tests  for  workers,  116-117. 

Typists,  increase  in  proportion  of 
women  employed  as,  6;  propor- 
tion among  school  group  studied, 
35.    See  also  Stenographers. 

Unit  Courses,  plan  for,  in  public 
schools,  55-56;  for  students  who 
leave  school,  70. 

Vacation  Months,  temporary  posi- 
tions filled  during,  104. 

Vacations,  women  in  office  service, 
108-109,  112. 

Ventilation,  good  conditions  in  of- 
fices, 109-110. 

Vocational  Advice,  value  of,  from 
business  women,  68. 

Voc.\tional  Education,  effect  on 
character  of  high  schools,  12: 
innovations  called  for  in  school 
administration,  14-15;  lesson  for 
commercial  educators,  58;  es- 
sentials for  efficiency,  174-175, 
177-179. 

Vocational  Guidance,  need  of,  in 
evening  schools,  5Gi-57^  177;  im- 
portance in  commercial  educar 
tion,  58,  59;  requirements,  59-60; 
social  service  function,  178-179. 

Wage-earning     Mothers,    number, 

157. 
Wage  Statistics,  sources  for,  114-117. 


INDEX. 


187 


Wages,  113-149;  ofRce  workers  placed 
by  typewriter  companies,  20; 
high  school  graduates,  29,  37,  43; 
evening  school  pupils  in  oflBce 
service,  55;  machine  operators,  61; 
office  force  in  department  stores, 
83;  saleswomen,  113;  reduction  of, 
for  loss  of  time,  108-112;  nominal 
and  actual,  110-111,  176;  in  boot 
and  shoe  industry,  113;  in  office 
service,  114;  in  mercantile  es- 
tablishments, 115;  civil  service 
positions,  115,  116;  office  workers 
registered  in  employment  bureau, 
117-118;  office  workers  secured 
through  high  schools,  141;  office 
workers  with  six  years'  or  less 
experience,  143;  by  age  and  living 
conditions,  158;  compared  with 
workers  in  other  occupations, 
175-176. 

Factors  determining,  122-148;  age  of 
workers,  122-123;  education  and 
training,  125-131,  134-139,  141- 
148;  experience,  131-139;  tech- 
nical training,  142-143,  145,  146, 
148. 

Education  in  relation  to,  36,  37,  38, 
71,  72, 126-131 ;  effect  of  additional 
training,  38,  142;  schooling  and 
length  of  experience,  45,  137. 

Clerks,  75,  123-124;  by  length  of 
experience,  131-139;  chart  show- 


ing, 133;  table,  135;  by  schooling 
and  experience,  chart  showing, 
137. 
Stenographers,  placed  by  tj-pe- 
writer  agencies,  80,  81,  82,  83,  84, 
85,  87,  117;  clerks  and  stenog- 
raphers, 123-124;  by  length  of 
experience,  131-139;  by  schooling 
and  experience,  137;  maximum 
wage,  138;  by  schooling,  141; 
relation  of  additional  training  to, 
142;  stenographers  and  clerks, 
176. 
See  also  Initial  Wage  and 
Salaries. 

Weekly  Hours  of  Work,  see  Hours 
OF  Employment. 

West  End,  Boston,  population,  151- 
152. 

Wholesale  Houses,  opportunity  for 
stenographers  in,  82. 

Women,  statistics  of  employment,  1; 
chart  showing,  3;  number  em- 
ployed in  office  service  in  United 
States,  74;  proportion  in  clerical 
work,  75-76;  bookkeepers  and 
accountants,  75,  76;  proportion  of 
stenographers  and  tj'pists  in 
United  States,  92;  hours  of  work 
in  office  service,  105-107;  health 
of  workers,  110;  wages  113-149; 
home  life,  150-171. 

Working  Conditions,  in  office  service, 
105-110,  112. 


D21 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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